​Everyone, hope you are keeping safe and well. Welcome to the holidays in a time of pandemic. Odds are you’ve done more reading this year with the quarantine thing than in previous. I know I have. And we could all use a good book right about now. Here is a list of recommendations for books I’ve read this past year. I’ve also included two books that I’m currently reading. Both are so good I had to include them. With that, read on and enjoy!

Non-Fiction

Letters from an Astrophysicist, by Neil de Grasse Tyson

A thoughtful small tome of letters written to and by famed scientist Neil de Grasse Tyson. Throughout he is a pragmatic scientist to the core, answering challenging questions from readers, critics, and even fundamentalist firebrands. His personal account of 9/11--he lived literally four blocks from ground zero--is chilling. A completely enjoyable read. And it’s a good thing we have scientists like him in this nutty world.

The Queens of Animation, by Nathalia Holt

Holt's book is a history of the women animators who worked for the Disney studio during its golden years. Of the artists chronicled, Mary Blair is the only name I knew previously. She truly was a giant among giants--Disney loved her animation. Beyond, I enjoyed making the connections between the various artists and their contributions to early Disney animated classics. Retta Scott and her work on the movie Bambi is one of many notables.  

Chaucer: A European Life, by Marion Turner

Dr. Marion Turner is Professor of English Literature at the University of Oxford, and a Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. She specializes in medieval literature and culture, with a focus on Chaucer. Carla heard Terry Gross interview her on Fresh Air early in the year and shared it with me. I thought Turner’s enthusiasm for Chaucer, his life, and writings--especially The Canterbury Tales—was infectious. Her book is comprised of over 500 pages of incredible detail about Chaucer and English history of the time, including all the insane politics. It’s a superb read about one of the early greats of English literature. 

Tea: A Nerd's Eye View, by Virginia Utermohlen Loveland MD

Dr. Loveland is an MD by profession and a chemist. Her book is a deep dive into the world of tea, especially in regards to the chemistry of the plant and the brew itself. There’s more than a bit of science here but lots to learn and appreciate. 

The Ninth: Beethoven and the World in 1824, by Harvey Sachs

Harvey Sachs is a trained musician (piano and conducting) and a music historian. The Ninth is a heartfelt homage to the author’s lifelong obsession with Beethoven and his ninth symphony. Further, it’s an exploration into Europe post-Napoleonic war and how repressive society was at the time following the previous era of égalité and liberté. Sachs also includes short sections in the book on Byron, Pushkin, Delacroix, and the German poet Heinrich Heine, and their roles as revolutionaries in their respective arts. Perhaps the most impressive part of the book is the chapter where Sachs describes his impressions of the ninth symphony movement-by-movement, section-by-section. His text is the product of being intimately familiar with the score for several decades. I personally find it hard enough to describe a piece of music even for a few bars. Sachs succeeds in doing that on a grand scale and for one of the greatest compositions ever written. This year marks the 250th anniversary of Beethoven’s birth. The Ninth is a timely read. 

The Art of Eating, by M.F.K. Fisher

I'd heard about M.F.K. Fisher forever but had never read any of her books. Shame on me. Earlier this year I tackled the 50th anniversary edition of her The Art of Eating. It’s a compendium containing her first five books published between 1937 and 1949: Serve it Forth, Consider the Oyster, How to Cook a Wolf, The Gastronomical Me, and An Alphabet For Gourmets. Fisher is widely considered one of the country’s greatest food writers ever. Any and all accolades are well-deserved. I found her writing to be completely engaging, capable of capturing the very essence of savoring a truffle or sipping a great bottle of wine. Her ability to effortlessly go between microscopic detail and 30K feet is remarkable. As much as anything, I enjoyed her detailed accounts of the state of food, wine, and dining between the wars and beyond. If you are remotely interested in food and wine you’ll love The Art of Eating. 

The Biggest Bluff: How I Learned to Pay Attention, Master Myself, and Win, by Maria Konnikova

Maria Konnikova has a PhD in psychology from Columbia and has written two previous books that made the Times list. In The Biggest Bluff Konnikova writes how she has always been intrigued with the role that luck and chance play in our lives. After reading a book by John von Neuman (20th century scientist) and how he took up poker to further his theories on chance, Maria decides to dedicate a year to becoming a professional poker player. What follows is one of those classic writer decides to spend a year or more trying to learn a completely different profession books. However, Biggest Bluff is well-written and by the end you care about Maria and her experiences in the underbelly of gaming and poker tournaments. There are also several passages in the book where she compares the skills needed to play poker professionally with dealing with real-life decisions. An enjoyable read.  

Anaximander, by Carlo Rovelli

This is the fourth book I've read by Italian theoretical physicist Carlo Rovelli. All have been superb. Reading his work about Anaximander of 6th century BCE Greece is to discover one of the greatest minds human kind has ever produced. A thousand years before the Renaissance, Anaximander believed that the earth floated in space, that rainfall came from the clouds formed from water evaporated by the sun, and that all living things originated from the sea. However, the most important thing we credit Anaximander was for the idea that all the phenomena of the world had natural causes--and nothing to do with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Further, that we could learn these causes through our own thought processes and investigations. What is extraordinary is that we know practically nothing about Anaximander, the man. There are literally only a few fragmented lines that can be directly attributed to him. However, a host of the greatest Greek minds—Plato, Socrates, and the like—who would follow him in the next few centuries mentioned him often and quoted his ideas. I found Rovelli's writing to be top flight as always. In addition to Anaximander, Carlo tackles the thorny issue of god/religion vs. science head on and much more. I am a huge fan of Rovelli’s writing and books. I hope you will become one too.

Fiction

The Canterbury Tales: Penguin Edition, by Geoffrey Chaucer

The other shoe drops… I hadn’t read the Canterbury Tales since 1982, at which time I was in graduate school at the University of Michigan studying trumpet. That spring the trumpet class at school played a softball game against the brass section of the Philadelphia Orchestra, that happened to be in town for a series of concerts. My first at bat yielded a grounder up the middle. I didn’t even make it to first base. I pulled up short with what seemed to be a Charley horse in my right thigh. It turned out to be a partially torn muscle. During my three-week rehab I decided for whatever reason to read "great books." Canterbury Tales was one of them. Fast forward to last spring. After reading Turner’s biography above I picked up the Penguin edition. It’s a good translation from middle English and easy to read. The wife of Bath's prologue and tale are the best. The stereotypes of men, women, knights, scholars, and more were already well established by this early time. As much as things change…

Circe, by Madeline Miller

Madeline Miller’s book Circe seemed to be in the window of every airport bookstore I passed in the last couple of years. I finally picked it up and I’m glad I did. Circe is one of my favorite reads of the year. I knew of her story previously from reading the Odyssey, but Miller brings Circe’s character and mythology to life in a thrilling way. Highest recommendation.

Quichotte, by Salman Rushdie

Rushdie is one of the great novelists of our time. His book, Quichotte, is also one of the craziest-ass books I've read in years. The cast of characters is just this side of unbelievable. The plot quickly reveals a book-within-a-book where the differences between reality and fiction blur and completely melt down by the end. Quichotte is a thrill ride of a read. 

The Master and Margarita, by Mikhail Bulgakov

The Master is perhaps the most famous 20th century Russian novel. It's also surrealist with a capital S. The book had been sitting in the “to read” pile on various bookshelves for the past two years. I had read the opening chapter twice previously, putting it down both times and thinking, "this is really insane, abstruse writing." Reading the entire the book did little to change my mind. The plot is so convoluted that it’s almost impossible to describe. The cast of characters includes the devil and various evil cohorts, Pontius Pilate (that Pontius Pilate), Jesus, and a host of characters, most of them writers in 1930s Moscow. I have never read a book quite like it. Odds are you will find it the same. 

Squeeze Me, by Carl Hiaasen

Squeeze Me is Carl Hiaasen’s latest. Like all Hiaasen’s works, it takes place in South Florida. The plot is a thinly veiled slice of political life from this past year. It features the president, Mastodon, and his wife Hummingbird. A host of giant Burmese Pythons, some over 20' long, play a major role. The first of these giant snakes we encounter in the book’s opening pages swallows an 80-pound elderly matron, who's passed out on the lawn of a chichi resort after one too many Tito's martinis and half a Xanax. As with any Hiaasen book the plot is just beyond credible and the characters even more tweaked. The book concludes with a madcap finale starring Mastodon who's just been nuked in a malfunctioning tanning bed and dozens of huge said pythons that have been set loose during a political rally. In other words, it's vintage Hiaasen. And that’s a wonderful thing.

My Favorite Read of the Year 

The Sandman, by Neil Gaiman

Neil Gaiman is my favorite fiction writer—and one of my very favorite writers of any ilk. I’ve read all his works save one: The Sandman. Certain factions of the author’s minions rave about it, saying that nothing else he’s written comes close. The Sandman is series of 14 graphic novels, most written between 1989 and 1996. I have never previously read any graphic novels, hence my hesitation at tackling the series. The story of The Sandman centers around “Dream,” or Morpheus, the king of dreams, and his siblings called the “Endless.” Gaiman draws from a myriad of religions, legends, mythologies, and tales. He also teamed up with a who’s-who of graphic novel artists using a different illustrator for each volume. No surprise that the art is simply amazing—at times beyond description. Gaiman’s storytelling, even for his first serious writing efforts, is extraordinary. By the time I finished the second volume I was hooked. Finishing the last volume of The Sandman reminded me of finishing Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings trilogy for the first time. Yes, The Sandman is that good—but it couldn’t possibly be more different.
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Important note: you should know that finding the entire series is not exactly easy. I opted for the simple but very expensive way by buying Marvel's new 30th anniversary edition just released in October. I plan to reread the entire set in the first quarter of next year. I’m really looking forward to it. 

Two Books I’m Currently Reading

Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teaching of Plants, by Robin Wall Kimmerer

Last year during a conversation a colleague raved about a book he had just finished called Braiding Sweetgrass. I ordered it on the spot and after it arrived it sat in my “to read” stack for months. Earlier this week a good friend mentioned it in an online post saying the book was life-changing and the author an incredibly gifted teacher. Quickly the book moved to the “next read” slot. I’m now half the way through it. Braiding Sweetgrass is everything advertised and more. Robin Wall Kimmerer is a mother, scientist, professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation. She lives in Syracuse, New York, where she is a SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor of Environmental Biology, and the founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment. Kimmerer is that rare teacher/writer who artfully blends scientific knowledge, indigenous story, and wisdom about the natural world. I’m taking my time with this first read and savoring each chapter. Highest recommendation. 

Nose Dive: A Field Guide to the World’s Smells, by Harold McGee

Lest you think I’m not reading wine books or wine-related books… Harold McGee is an awarding-winning food/food science writer based in San Francisco. His latest book, Nose Dive, is a masterpiece. That’s no hyperbole. The book was 15 years in the making and has been called the ultimate guide to all things olfactory. I’ll add my two cents in that it’s a very deep dive into families of aromatics with descriptions and chemical breakdowns. The text could easily have been impossibly technical but McGee’s skillful writing makes the complex easily understandable. No doubt Nose Dive will be a reference work for many years to come. Bravo, Harold! 

Hola from New Mexico. I hope everyone is keeping safe and well. Welcome to the lockdown version of the holidays. We may be huddling in our bunkers with immediate family or roommates, but that doesn’t mean we can’t enjoy a delicious bottle of vino or two with our holiday victuals.

As for pairing wine with the traditional holiday meal, it’s no big deal and certainly not rocket science. The sweet-savory-earthy combination of flavors of the holiday meal make it ideal—even forgiving--for practically any style of wine with few exceptions. Those exceptions are monumentally over-oaked Chardonnay or astringently tannic red wines like Cabernet Sauvignon. Remember that oak and tannin are the least flexible elements in wine when it comes to pairing with food. Having said that, I must also remind you that the X-factor in any wine experience is one’s personal preference. So if oaky Chardonnay or tannic Cabernet is your thing, by all means go for it.

What wines work best with the holiday meal? Practically any other style than those just mentioned. Look for unoaked, higher acid white wines, and medium-to-full bodied reds that aren’t too oaky or tannic. Piece of cake. No, make that pie. One last morsel of wisdom: residual sugar in white wine is extra primo good with the holiday meal because so many of the dishes also have a sweet element in them. Remember, sweet needs sweet when it comes to food and wine pairing.
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Quick note: If you can’t find one of the wines listed below locally, use winesearcher.com. It should bring up multiple sources for most—if not all—the wines on the list. Now it’s time to read on and assemble your holiday vino-shopping list.

Sparkling Wine and Champagne

Now more than ever it’s comforting to know that good bubbly is affordable. And we all need to drink more of it regularly.

NV Sorelle Bronca "Particella 68," Prosecco Superiore Brut: This is not the cheap stuff case-stacked to the rafters at Trader Joe’s. It’s the real deal, as in Prosecco Superiore DOCG (vs. simple Prosecco DOC wines). Sorrella is a small family owned estate in the town of Valdobiaddene. The Particella 68 Brut is produced in small quantities from a single vineyard planted on an impossibly steep hillside. Prosecco like this is the essence of Vivaldi in a bottle.

NV Ca' del Bosco Cuvée Prestige Brut, Franciacorta: Gets my vote for best overall value in sparkling wine. The wine is vibrant, earthy, and delicious. The package is simply gorgeous and the price is right. What’s not to love?

NV Pierre Peters Cuvée de Reserve, Blanc de Blancs: One of the first grower-producer Champagnes I tasted over 20 years ago—and still one of my favorites. The Pierre Peters is a true blanc de blancs from 100% Chardonnay. It’s lacy, steely, and laser-like on the palate. In short, quintessential aperitif Champagne.
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NV Alfred Gratien Rosé Brut: Like Krug and Bollinger, Alfred Gratien uses wood for primary fermentation to lend a rounded texture to the finished wine. That aside, there is no better value for rosé Champagne than the non-vintage Gratien. Period. I’m flummoxed why it’s not better known and appreciated.

White Wine

My list of holiday whites generally follows the theme of high acid, non-oaked wines from semi-aromatic grapes. There’s also a Chardonnay recommendation, plenty of Riesling, and an otherworldly Gewürztraminer.

Clelia Romano Fiano di Avellino, Colli di Lapio: I first bought Clelia Romano’s Fiano while a buyer at Virtual Vineyards over 20 years ago at the dawn of online time and retail cyber space. It remains one of my very favorite Italian whites with its lovely white floral, pear/quince, and tart citrus notes framed by intense minerality.

Cantina Terlano Pinot Bianco Riserva, "Vorberg," Alto Adige: Pinot Bianco, aka Pinot Blanc, practically always underachieves in a major way. Not so here. Terlano gets my vote for best white wine producer in Italy and their Vorberg is easily one of the greatest wines made from the grape. The vineyard is located on a steep alpine slope with sandy, porphyry-gravel soils. The wine is dense (dry extract) and concentrated with lots of acid lift.

Domaine Sigalas Assyrtiko, Santorini: Do you really need another reason to visit the magnificent island of Santorini? The Sigalas Assyrtiko is one of my favorite whites from anywhere. Rich and opulent but with racy acidity and insane volcanic minerality.

Domaine Huet Vouvray, Le Mont Sec: Huet’s Le Mont Sec could be the perfect white wine for turkey and all the trimmings. It’s also my favorite Vouvray by far; opulent, layered, and mineral-driven. If you haven’t tried it, you must.

Yalumba Viognier "The Virgilius," Eden Valley: A lot of New World Viognier is reminiscent of the Fat Elvis phase—as in awkward and a bit trashy. Not so here. Winemaker Louisa Rose of Yalumba is a master of Viognier. She makes three different bottlings from the grape and the top cuvée is called The Virgilius. It’s shimmering, perfumed, and elegant.

Domaine Weinbach Gewurztraminer, Cuvée Théo: Domaine Weinbach is one of the top estates in Alsace. Their Cuvée Théo is sourced from the oldest vines in the Clos du Capuchins vineyard. A quick whiff of the glass reveals an astonishing array of floral, lychee, spicy exotic fruit, and truffle-earth. In short, it’s a wow. 

Emmerich Knoll Grüner Veltliner Smaragd Loibenberg: Emmerich Knoll is one of the Austria’s top winemakers. Grüner Veltliner is the country’s premier white grape, and Smaragd its richest version—a classification only used in the Wachau, the country’s smallest quality wine region. Smaragd wines are completely decadent with honey, ginger, and saffron from botrytis combined with the pepper, daikon, and botanical notes that make Grüner Veltliner so unique. Knoll’s Smaragd Loibenberg is not exactly easy to find and it’s not inexpensive. But try it you must.  

Mount Eden Estate Chardonnay: A Chardonnay recommendation before all the Rieslings. Mount Eden’s Estate has always been my favorite California Chardonnay. Steep Santa Cruz Mountains hillside vineyards planted with Burgundian clones make for one of the most unique places for the grape in the New World. Winemaker Jeffrey Patterson always keeps balance in mind so the use of oak is never excessive. His wines are also among the few California Chardonnays capable of long-term aging. I’ve tasted 25-year-old bottles that were mature and yet fresh.

Riesling

Half my cellar (which sadly is still a thousand miles away in Oakland, CA), is German Riesling. Most of that is Spätlese-level (late harvest) as in slightly sweet. Why? Because Spätlese Riesling is the most versatile and delicious food white wine there is. I can’t think of a better white for the holiday table. Following is a short list of some of my favorite producers and vineyards with Spätlese specifically in mind.

Egon Müller Scharzhofberg: Weightless, shimmering elegance, and filigree. It’s expensive (and should be).

Dönnhoff Niederhäuser Hermannshöhle: Many believe Helmut Dönnhoff and his son Cornelius to be Germany’s top winemakers. I find it hard to disagree. The Hermannshöhle makes for sumptuous, layered, fruity wines as well as brilliant dry Grosse Lage bottlings. Not easy to find, but can be temporarily life-changing.

Robert Weil Kiedricher Gräfenberg: One of the Rheingau’s (and Germany’s) top estates—and greatest vineyards. The wines are incredibly focused, concentrated, and weightless. Utterly delectable.

Rheinhold Haart Piesporter Goldtröpchen: Theo Haart’s Rieslings from the great Goldtröpchen vineyard are easily the best in Piesport. The wines are honeyed, sumptuous, and racy. 

J.J. Prüm Wehlener Sonnenuhr: The Prüm wines have a distinct terroir, great precision, and ethereal filigree. The Wehlener Sonnenuhr vineyard has been cultivated without interruption for the better part of the last 2,000 years.
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Gunderloch Nackenheimer Rothenberg: I’m still sad about the passing of owner-winemaker and friend Fritz Hasselbach in the fall of 2016. His Rieslings from the Rothenberg vineyard were always opulent and shamelessly hedonistic. Fritz may be gone, but the family’s outstanding wines from the Rothenberg are still with us.

Rosé

Dry rosé is perfect with the holiday dinner, especially roast turkey which a colleague once described as, “chicken with attitude.” Here is a trio of favorite pink wines.

Domaine de Fontsainte Corbières Rosé, Gris de Gris: A delicious Southern French saignée rosé made from a blend of Grenache Gris, Grenache Noir, and Carignan. Saignée, BTW, refers to the traditional method of separating part of the juice from a red wine fermentation and making rosé from it. I’m convinced that we are all better for it.

Robert Sinskey Vin Gris of Pinot Noir: Many pink wines are cast-offs or after thoughts intended to generate quick cash flow. Not the Sinskey Vin Gris. The fruit comes from prime Pinot Noir real estate. The grapes are whole cluster pressed and only the free run juice is used. The result is dry, delicate, and delightful.

Tasca d'Almerita Tenuta Regaleali, Le Rose, Rosato: Sicily is one of my favorite places in the wine world. Tenuta Regaleali is a gorgeous estate located in the mountains an hour from Palermo. The estate has been owned by the Tasca d’Almerita family since 1837, and is known for superb wines and an internationally recognized cooking school. This vibrant rosato is made from Nerello Mascalese grapes planted in 1974. It offers tart youthful red fruit with a touch of volcanic minerality.

Red Wine

In choosing reds, I’ve kept in mind the fact that some may opt for lamb, beef, or venison instead of the usual roast turkey. Thus, you’ll find both lighter and richer reds below.

Gary Farrell Pinot Noir, Hallberg Vineyard, Russian River Valley: Pinot Noir is a universal go-to red wine this time of year, and for good reason: its bright fruit and silky tannins make it an ideal mate for Thanksgiving dinner and beyond. Winemaker Theresa Heredia of Gary Farrell is one of my favorites for Russian River Pinot. Her wines always show wonderful depth and spice character.

Roberto Voerzio Barbera d’Alba, "Il Cerreto": Barbera is not exactly a wine that comes to mind with Thanksgiving dinner--but it should. Roberto Voerzio is one of the top producers in Barolo. His Barberas are also legendary. The “Il Cerreto” is crammed with luscious fruit, savory herbal notes, and tart acidity.

La Rioja Alta Viña Ardanza Reserva: La Rioja Alta is one of my favorite old-school Rioja producers. Their Viña Ardanza Reserva spends three years in American oak casks, giving the wine an overt Bourbon-spiciness with a supple texture and distinct earthiness.

Yalumba "The Signature," Shiraz-Cabernet Sauvignon: Shiraz-Cabernet blends from Australia are one of the world’s best-kept red wine secrets. Yalumba’s The Signature is a perfect marriage between the spice and savory elements of Shiraz and the structure of Cabernet. It’s also one of my favorite reds for the money.

Henschke "Keynetone Euphonium," Shiraz-Cabernet, Eden Valley: A visit some years ago to the Henschke winery in Eden Valley was one of the greatest single producer tastings I’ve ever experienced. The major take away was that no one does red wine texture and tannin management better than Steven Henschke. As expected, the Hill of Grace Shiraz was world-class. But I especially remember the Keynetone Euphonium, a Shiraz-Cabernet blend. It was lush, seamless, and imminently drinkable.
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Storybook Mountain Reserve Zinfandel: Jerry Seps is a founder of ZAP (Zinfandel Advocates and Producers) and one of the patriarchs of the grape. His reserve bottling—a selection of the best barrels in a given vintage--is easily my favorite Zinfandel. It shows the lush—just this side of frat party--fruit we expect from Zin but in the most elegant and stylish expression possible. 

Dessert Wine

There’s only one rule that needs to be followed when pairing dessert wines with holiday desserts: The wine must always be sweeter than the dessert. Here are three very different stickies, all perfect for holiday desserts.

Donnafugata Ben Ryé: made on the windswept volcanic island of Pantelleria from dried Muscat grapes locally called “Zbibbo.” Ben Ryé, which means “song of the wind” in Arabic, manages to be seductive without being cloying. It’s also one of the great values in dessert wines.

Niepoort Colheita Port: More often than not, aged tawny ports show declarations of 10, 20, 30, even 40 years on the label. A Colheita, or vintage Tawny, is a rarity and Niepoort specializes in them. The 1995 vintage I tasted recently is drinking beautifully with notes of toffee, roasted nuts, caramel, and molasses. Pumpkin pie, anyone?

Château Coutet à Barsac: Barsac is a neighbor to the higher rent Sauternes district and also produces botrytis sweet wines. Coutet is one of my favorite chateaux there. The wine always delivers unctuous honey and exotic spice flavors.

Coda: Support Your Local Independent Retailers

I hope you’ve found some holiday vino ideas from the list. Remember that any of the wines would make a thoughtful holiday gift. In fact, you should pick up several bottles for yourself. Otherwise, one final thing I want to suggest is that you support your local independent retailers whenever you can. Since the shelter in place began in March, I’ve made it a point to order from several independent shops owned by friends and colleagues. I’ve listed them below. I hope you will consider doing likewise with the retailers listed or ones in your local market. Cheers!
 
Boulder Wine Merchant, Boulder, CO: owner Brett Zimmerman, MS
https://www.boulderwine.com
(303) 443-6761
 
Ferry Plaza Wine Merchant, San Francisco, CA: owners Peter Granoff, MS, and Debbie Zacharias
https://fpwm.com
(415) 391-9400
 
San Francisco Wine Trading Company, San Francisco, CA: owners Gary and Julia Marcaletti
https://www.sfwtc.com
(415) 731-6222
 
The Wine Goddess, Evanston, IL: owner Diana Hamann
https://www.winegoddess.com
(847) 475-9463

There is no faking it. As professionals we are judged by how well we do it. It separates the novice from the professional, and it’s the unwritten--even unspoken--goal of any wine training. What is this mysterious coin of the realm? Simple: judging wine quality.

When hired for most jobs in the industry, this is what we are being employed to do. Whether it’s buying for a three-star Michelin restaurant wine list or choosing the best currently available sub-ten-dollar Merlots for a supermarket, we as professionals are being paid to taste wine and judge quality.

What determines quality in wine? What are the criteria for judging it? How does one develop the experience necessary to be able to competently judge wine quality? Following are some answers to all the above.   

Wine Quality Defined

Judging wine quality is comprised of several basic but important factors: balance, typicity, context, and previous experience. Here’s how they break down.

Balance

If the wine displays harmony among all its elements, it’s said to be balanced. Most of these elements have to do with a wine’s structure, as in the levels of alcohol, acid, phenolic bitterness, and tannin. If one or more sticks out like the proverbial sore thumb, the wine isn’t balanced and probably lacking in quality. For example, if a wine is over ripe and lacks acidity, it’s poorly balanced and lacks quality. Likewise, if a wine is too tannic or oaky, it’s also not well-balanced and probably—but not always--of lesser quality. More about that in a moment.

Fruit plays an important role in balance as far as matching the level of acidity. For practically any white or pink wine (and for many minimally oaked or unoaked red wines) the fruit and acid must be balanced for the wine to be of any quality.  

A good example of fruit-acid balance in white wine comes from a memory of a tasting some years ago. In 2002 I was in in Germany with a group of MS colleagues. On the last morning of the trip we met at Weingut Franz Künstler in the Rheingau. If not familiar, winemaker Günter Künstler is one of the best in the Rheingau—and in Germany for that matter. He’s one of the few that makes both brilliant dry wines and fruity-styled wines with residual sugar. His noble sweet wines are also off the chart. Günter’s winery and vineyards lie at the eastern edge of the Rheingau in the village of Hochheim.

The tasting was amazing. Günter opened over 40 bottles for us in the form of five-year verticals of some of his best wines both dry and sweet. The wine of the visit for me was the 2001 Hochheimer Kirchenstück Spätlese Riesling. The wine had extraordinary intensity and depth, and the balance between the succulent sweet-tart fruit and high acidity was like a razor’s edge. It was just about perfect. The wine is still etched in my memory. I have since judged every non-Mosel Spätlese against it either consciously or unconsciously.
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One last note about balance. Context, which is discussed below, comes into play in that some wines of high quality aren’t balanced when young. Others, like Nebbiolo-based Barolo with its high tannin and high acidity, will never be balanced but can be outstanding--even world-class--in quality. 

Typicity

Typicity is a deceptively simple concept: That a wine should look, smell, and taste like a good example of its grape and origin. There are many factors that make a wine typical.

Color: Is the wine too light in color? Too deep in color? A young, un-oaked white wine should be pale straw in color vs. an older or oaked wine that’s yellow or even gold.

Aromatics: Lots of factors here including the ripeness and quality of the fruit, the presence or lack of important non-fruit markers (many of which are impact compounds or important varietal aromas and flavors), the presence of earth/mineral, and the use of oak. As I said, lots of factors.
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Purity of fruit: Regardless of price point, grape, or origin, a quality wine to me has a purity of fruit that is easy to recognize. Be it apple, lime, or whatever, the fruit in a wine of any quality always sings through the other aromatics and is easily identifiable.

Palate: Does the wine show appropriate fruit ripeness and structure levels? Or is it underripe, possibly meaning early harvesting or a cooler than usual vintage? A ripe or over-ripe wine signifies the opposite: late harvesting or a warmer than usual vintage. Connecting the dots between fruit quality/character and structure is also important. Finally, the length of the finish speaks to quality. The phrase “the longer the finish the better quality the wine” may be trite but there is something to a wine having length and persistence that is directly related to quality.

Complexity: Quality wines will often—but not always--show a good deal of complexity on nose and palate. Here I’m defining complexity in regards to the number of aromas and flavors in a wine combined with how much it evolves on the palate. However, complexity is not always so straightforward. Some wines don’t show complexity when young and only develop it over time with age. Other commercially-produced wines won’t ever show a good deal of complexity, but still show balance and typicity which can account for quality.  

In thinking about typicity, not long ago I tasted a Pouilly Fumé from the 2018 vintage. The first impression on the nose was of ripe, almost exotic fruit and a complete lack of the green quality (pyrazines) that’s an important marker for any Sauvignon Blanc-based wine. On the palate the wine lacked acidity and was clumsy. It could have been a Central Coast Chardonnay.

Why was the wine so different? Simple answer: the vintage. 2018 was a warmer than average year for the Central Vineyards in the Loire, hence the wine was far riper than usual with higher alcohol and markedly less acidity. However, was the wine still of quality? The answer was yes, but with a caveat: it was a well-made wine from a warm year but lacked important variety markers and therefore was atypical.

The opposite could also be true. Imagine a Cabernet Sauvignon from a well-known region from a cooler vintage. The wine could be lighter in color, red-fruit dominant, and have a pronounced green pyrazinic character. Not exactly typical, but the wine could still be balanced and the quality good.

Context

As with everything in wine, context is a huge factor when judging quality. It comes into play in any tasting experience in the form of the tasting environment, the taster, and the wine itself. Here are a few examples of how context can potentially impact judging quality when tasting.

The tasting environment: Including appropriate lighting, a good ambient temperature, lack of extraneous noise and odors, and good glassware.

The wine: Appropriate tasting temperature and free from faults. Also, the proper tasting order of wines i.e., tasting whites before reds, dry wines before sweet wines, and less tannic reds before tannic reds.

The taster: Taster, know theyself! Here I’m referring to the individual knowing their personal sensitivities to structural elements (i.e., high tannin) as well as being aware of personal likes, dislikes, and even biases. For example, someone may have a strong dislike for new oak in white wine. When asked to select high-end California Chardonnays for a restaurant list, they must be able to set personal bias aside and judge the wines in front of them for quality regardless of oak usage. Another example would be someone who considers the presence of Brettanomyces in any amount to be a fault. If they’re asked to taste through current releases of high-end Northern Rhône Syrah, they would need to be able put aside their Brett aversion to be able to do a credible job of selecting the best wines.
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Finally, wine price tier also figures into context. Is the wine a mass-produced commercial Chardonnay or a domain-bottled White Burgundy? Ultimately, it shouldn’t matter. A professional needs to have a frame of reference for both and to be able to judge quality without bias. 

Previous Experience

This is the one piece of the judging quality equation that cannot be hacked or faked. Previous experience is absolutely required to be able to judge quality. Knowing how typical examples of classic grapes and wines are supposed to look, smell, and taste can only be gained through a great deal of tasting experience. Add to that knowledge of vintage variations and specific producers whose wines are atypical but still of high quality.

Yes, it’s complicated. But after all, who said tasting was easy? To be any good at it one has to taste a lot of wine over a long duration of time. That brings up the question of how can one get the needed experience in order to be able to judge wine quality—regardless of type—at a professional level. Here are some suggestions:

• Taste with a group of other professionals regularly. Other palates and opinions can only expand your tasting universe.
• This may seem obvious, but taste good examples of classic grapes and wines regularly. Initially, don’t waste time tasting atypical wines.
• Mix blind tasting with non-blind tasting. Looking at labels when tasting helps make important memory connections.
• Go to as many trade events as you can—especially those that focus on top producers from a classic region or a consortium of top producers. Taste carefully, listen, and take copious notes. Then read your notes later and try to remember the best wines from that particular tasting in as much detail as possible. Do this a couple of times in the following 24-48 hours after the tasting.
• Take a class on wine faults. It will prove invaluable. Also read up on wine faults and be able to explain why so many of them are contextual.
• Periodically taste lower tier mass-produced commercial wines so you have a clue about them. This includes White Zinfandel and box wines. Don’t lose touch with these wines because at some point in your career you’ll have to deal with them. Tasting these wines on a semi-regular basis will help you establish--and maintain--a frame of reference of how good examples in the category should taste. I also recommend tasting commercial and domain wines next to each from time to time. Carefully analyze what defines quality in each category.

Ultimately your goal is to be able to pick up a glass of wine regardless of the environment or distractions (as in, all hell breaking loose around you) and be able to quickly and completely assess it, provide an opinion about the wine’s quality, and be able to explain it. The total analysis may only take 30-45 seconds, but years of previous experience are required to be able to make the right call. This doesn’t happen overnight. It happens one glass at a time. 

Structure in wine is important--really important. By structure I mean the levels of alcohol, acidity, phenolic bitterness (white wines), and tannin (red wines). Personally, I think a wine’s structure is its very bones. It also speaks to grape variety, place of origin, climate, timing of harvest, winemaking techniques, and so much more.

It’s no surprise that assessing structure accurately and consistently is a necessity for becoming a professional taster. It’s also key for being able to judge wine quality at any level. For the student, what’s necessary is to first be able to first separate the physical sensations of the different structural elements on the palate. Then over time, to be able to quickly and consistently assess structural levels and, later, connect the dots between structure and the overall character of the wine.

One such example is making the connection between high alcohol, restrained acidity (and possible acidulation), and ripe-raisinated fruit in a Barossa Shiraz. Or the high acidity, restrained alcohol and tart fruit in a Chianti Classico.  

Everything I’ve just described requires time and experience. But to get started, here are the structural elements defined, as well as some basic strategies to practice tasting for them.  

Alcohol

Definition:
Ethanol alcohol in wine is a product of fermentation. The alcohol level in table wines ranges between 5.5% to over 16%.

What does it smell like?
Alcohol in wine is odorless but perceived as heat on the nose. However, smelling jammy or raisinated fruit can and should create expectations for high alcohol on the palate of a wine.

What does it taste like?
Alcohol is tasteless, but as just mentioned, wines with high alcohol content have ripe, jammy fruit and lower natural acidity. Wines with less alcohol have higher natural acidity, less ripe fruit, and are tart on the palate.

What does it feel like?
Elevated alcohol can give wine a fuller body as well a richer texture on the palate. High alcohol can also give the illusion of sweetness on the palate.

How do I check for it?
After spitting the wine out, say the letter “O” and inhale (remember, AFTER spitting out the wine). Note the sensation of warmth or heat perceived in the bridge of the nose, the mouth, throat, and even chest cavity if the alcohol is high.

Connecting the dots:
High alcohol means that the grapes used to produce the wine were ripe or even over-ripe. Thus, a high alcohol wine will show ripe, jammy, or even raisinated fruit as well as lower natural acidity. Also, a high-alcohol wine will commonly be acidulated with tartaric acid.

Reference wines:
Low alcohol white wines: Moscato di Asti (semi-sparkling), Riesling (Mosel),
High alcohol white wines: New World Chardonnay, New World Viognier, Southern Rhône Marsanne blends

Acidity

Definition:
There are four primary acids found in grapes: tartaric, malic, lactic, and citric. Tartaric acid, by far, is the most important as gives both grapes and wine balance and potential to age. It decreases as grapes ripen. If lacking, it needs to be added to the must during fermentation or the wine before bottling. Powdered tartaric acid derived from grapes is the most common acid additive.

What does it smell like?
Acidity doesn’t smell like anything. However, smelling tart or under ripe fruit can and should create expectations for high acidity in a wine.

What does it taste like?
Easily said: Acidity tastes sour.

What does it feel like?
On the palate, acidity is sensed by increased saliva production and activity in the salivary glands. High acidity is also often felt in the front of the mouth on tongue, teeth, and gums.

How do I check for it? 
Pay close attention to your salivary glands and saliva production after spitting out the wine. If in doubt, take a sip of water and note the complete lack of acidity as compared to the wine.

Connecting the dots:
It all goes back to place. Cooler climate places produce high acid-lower alcohol wines because the grapes don’t completely ripen. Generally, cool climate wines often have less depth of color and offer more savory character when compared to wines made from grapes grown in warmer climates that have higher alcohol, riper fruit, and less natural acidity.
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Reference wines:
Lower acid wines: Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, Marsanne-Roussanne blends
High acid wines: Riesling, Melon, Chenin Blanc

Phenolic Bitterness

Definition:
For white wines only! Phenols are a large group of compounds found in grape skins and seeds. Note that tannins are part of the phenol family. In white wines, phenols are derived from the must being in contact with the skin before, during, or after fermentation. Phenolic bitterness is an important marker for many semi-aromatic and fully aromatic grapes.

What does it smell like?
Phenolic bitterness is odorless. However, smelling wines made from semi-aromatic and fully aromatic grapes with pronounced floral qualities can and should build expectations of phenolic bitterness on the palate.

What does it taste like?
As implied, phenolic bitterness taste bitter. It’s often described as “almond skin bitterness” on the finish of a wine.

What does it feel like?
In any quantity, phenolic bitterness feels astringent on the palate—especially on the finish of the wine.  

Note! It’s important for the student to be able to separate phenolic bitterness from used oak in white wines. The latter is usually accompanied by other aromas and flavors from oak aging.

How do I check for it?
The best way to experience phenolic bitterness is to taste a wine made from a fully-aromatic grape like Gewürztraminer. Take a sip and hold the wine on your palate for about 10 seconds before spitting it out. Better yet, take a small sip and swallow while paying close attention to the bitter taste and touch of grittiness on the finish of the wine.

Connecting the dots:
Perceiving phenolic bitterness on the palate signals a semi-aromatic or fully aromatic white grape which can be connected to the overt floral qualities stemming from terpenes. The two are often found together.

Reference wines:
Low phenolic bitterness wines: Chardonnay, Melon
High phenolic bitterness wines: Torrontés, Gewürztraminer, Viognier

Tannin

Definition:
For red wines only! Tannin, or tannic acid, is derived from grape skins or oak barrels in which red wine is often aged. Powdered tannin is also commonly added to red wine during various stages of the winemaking process.

What does it smell like?
Tannin is odorless. However, a deeply colored red wine with ripe fruit and aromas of oak aging should create expectations of elevated tannin.

What does it taste like?
In any quantity, tannin tastes bitter like overly brewed tea.

What does it feel like?
Tannin feels astringent and even gritty on the palate. It’s important to note the difference between grape and oak tannin in regards to their sensory “location” on the palate. It varies with the individual. For me, grape tannins are perceived in the front of the mouth and oak tannins in the back. It’s useful to be able to separate the two.

Reference wines:
Low tannin wines: Gamay, Pinot Noir
High tannin wines: Cabernet Sauvignon, Barolo, Aglianico

Working with Structure

Following are strategies for practicing tasting for structure. Gaining experience and accuracy in structural assessment again takes time and a lot of practice—just like everything else in tasting!

Get a Coravin: A Coravin is by far the most useful wine accessory there is for tasting practice. Using a Coravin will allow you to buy best examples of wines and to taste them repeatedly over a period of time, thereby saving you thousands of dollars on wine purchases.

Taste wines in pairs: Our brains learn easily with binary. Practice tasting wines in twos. Then do the following.

Calibrate structure using extremes: One of the easiest ways to learning consistent calibration of structural elements is by comparative tasting that uses extremes. Using a Coravin, here are suggested pairs of wines that show extremes in structure. Taste for one structural element at a time. And remember—only two wines at a time!

• Alcohol - low vs. high: Mosel Riesling vs. high alcohol Napa Valley Chardonnay
• Acidity - low vs. high: Alsace Gewurztraminer vs. Clare Valley Riesling
• Phenolic bitterness - low vs. high: Chablis AC vs. Alsace Gewurztraminer
• Tannin - low vs. high: Beaujolais Villages vs. Barolo

​Cause & Effect: Memorize the cause and effect behind each criteria of the tasting grid, especially in regards to fruit quality and ripeness levels as they relate to structural levels. Connect the dots from color to fruit ripeness to acid and alcohol.

Write personal grape variety descriptions: There are several sources of grape variety descriptions, including this blog. That said, I highly recommend writing your own as there will doubtless be markers for various grape varieties that are unique to you. Make sure to include structural levels in your descriptions. 
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Cheers!

One of my core beliefs about wine is that it’s the great connector--it connects us to each other in ways that no other thing, substance, or small household appliance does. That for thousands of years, since the time primitive man first started decanting wine for aeration purposes, we humans have shared meals with members of our clan. Nothing could be truer in my life. 

I grew up in a household with six kids in the 1960’s. Dinner time could only be described as barely controlled chaos. With four boys swimming in a morass of testosterone it was not uncommon to have a dinner roll ka-tonked off the side of your head when you requested bread from the other end of the table. Asking for butter (which was actually margarine, of course), was likewise completely risky business.

In short, dinner was a Darwinian affair requiring cunning and dexterity. Any and everything was passed around the table only once. If you didn’t get enough on the first shot, you weren’t getting more. A gallon of milk barely made it around the table. The oldest three of us quickly figured out that the only way to get more was to pour your glass full, drink half of it, then refill before passing it on, causing an immediate firestorm of protest from my younger brothers and sister. It was also imperative that you quickly identify and skewer the biggest-ass pork chop/ham slice/slice of meatloaf on the platter when it came your way because it was your one and only shot at sustenance for the evening.
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When my school mates joined for dinner, they were always a bit shaken by the carnal frenzy that defined our family meals. They soon learned to adapt or went home hungry. It’s also worth noting that my then future brother-in-law did not return to our house for over six months after his first Easter dinner at the Gaiser table. Enough said.

Eventually, with the patience of a saint and the aid of blunt instruments, my Mom managed to instill some semblance of table manners in the six of us. That in itself is a minor miracle. Beyond that, she also managed in a very sly way to instill the dining ritual in us as a family, and not because she and my Dad were raised in the European tradition of fine dining with candle lit extravaganzas and lengthy erudite conversations. That was as remote as the Dog Star. Instead, it was the mere act of gathering the entire herd once a day so we could sit down and have dinner. That even if all hell had broken loose during the previous 12 hours—and it often did--we had the certainty of knowing that we as a family would share a meal. 

​Years later when Carla and I first moved to the city and were both bartending, the dining ritual continued. On our rare nights off together, we either went out or stayed in and cooked dinner for one another. Explorations into the Byzantine menus of the now sadly long-gone Gourmet magazine often ensued with the kitchen getting completely trashed and us limping to the dinner table like stunned livestock after vigorous and sometimes pyrotechnic experiments in the kitchen.

The dining ritual continued unabated after our lives went from “man on man” to “zone” in terms of having kids. Looking back on those years, I’ve come to believe that one of the greatest things Carla and I have given our kids is the many years of the dining ritual. When it was dinnertime life came to a screeching halt. Once dinner was plated and hit the table, everyone gathered regardless of whatever else on the planet was going on. Maria, now out of grad school and working for the School of Public Health at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has told me many times that the thing she misses most about home life is sharing dinner, especially the hours of hanging out at the table after dinner was over finishing a bottle of wine and chatting about everything under the sun.

Does the dining ritual guarantee a happy family or a long relationship-marriage? Not necessarily but it’s a primo opportunity to spend time with your partner and family. And that’s not a bad thing. It’s worked for Carla and me for over 40 years. It might just work for you. Finally, I think that the dining ritual is especially important now with the pandemic. Sheltering in place means we need connection and community more than ever. Sharing a meal and a bottle of wine is not only sustenance--it’s a much-needed balm for the soul. I hope everyone reading this missive is able to do just that on a regular basis.

Cheers—and stay safe! 

"Baseball is 90% mental. The other half is physical."

Yogi Berra

In deductive tasting, the sensory evaluation sequence when one gathers as information about a wine’s appearance, aroma, and palate is only part of the equation. What’s equally important, arguably even more important, is to be able to put all the information together in a meaningful way to come up with a logical conclusion. To point, many times I’ve sat across a table from a student listening to them describe a wine in detail only to, in the words of the all-knowing Bugs Bunny, take a left turn at Albuquerque with a conclusion that makes absolutely no sense. It’s as if the student either didn’t listen to themself while describing the wine or they couldn’t connect the dots and come up with a grape and region that matches the information found in the glass.

Enter the decision matrix. The matrix is a series of mini if-then evaluations that a taster can use when examining a wine to help to come up with a good conclusion. For example, looking at a glass of red wine that’s lighter in color can quickly build expectations of a thinner-skinned grape variety grown in a cooler climate with red fruit dominating nose and palate as well as the finished wine having less alcohol, higher natural acidity, and moderate tannins. You get the idea. 

While there are exceptions to all the so-called rules below, the matrix will provide a foundation for you to build on. Remember that there is no replacement for knowing key markers for classic grapes and wines. Mastery of these is absolutely required to become an experienced taster. Finally, the matrix is intended as a starting point for anyone to use and then to go on and develop their own personal version. With that, read on, explore, and enjoy.

Sight

Color: White Wines

• Light or pale color:
  • Youth
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Reductive winemaking
  • Lack of new oak aging

 

• Deep yellow or gold color:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Overall age
  • Extended new oak aging
  • Botrytis-affected fruit
  • Extended skin contact

 

• Green secondary color:
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Youth

 
Color: Red Wines

• Lighter color:
  • Thinner-skinned grape
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Red fruit dominant wine
  • Less overall ripeness of fruit
  • Higher natural acidity
  • Lower alcohol

 

• Garnet color:
  • Overall age and degree of oxidation
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Extended oak aging

 

• Deeper color:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Dark fruit dominant wine
  • Riper fruit qualities
  • Lower natural acidity (possible acidulation)
  • Higher alcohol
  • Possible higher tannin

 
Rim variation

• Pink or purple color:
  • Youth
  • Lack of extended new oak aging

 

• Salmon – orange – yellow – brown:
  • Overall level of oxidation
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Extended oak aging
  • Oxidative grape variety

 

• Legs/tearing
  • Quickly forming, thinner, and quickly moving tears/legs =
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Lower alcohol
  • Lower dry extract
  • Higher natural acidity
  • Lack of residual sugar

 

• Slower forming, thicker, and slower moving tears/legs:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Higher alcohol
  • Lower acidity (possible acidulation)
  • Higher dry extract
  • Possible presence of residual sugar
  • Possible fortification

 

• Staining of the tears in red wine:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Concentrated wine
  • Possible warmer climate
  • Higher dry extract

Nose

Faults/wine hygiene

• Brettanomyces
  • Possible Old World growing region
  • High pH wine from warmer growing region
  • Minimal winemaking

 

• Volatile acidity:
  • Possible Old World growing region
  • Minimal winemaking
  
  

Fruit

• Fruit-dominant:
  • New World region
  • New World style

 

• Lack of overt fruit:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

 

• Fresh, vibrant fruit:
  • Youth
  • Lack of oak influence

 

• Dried or preserved fruit:
  • Wine with age

 

• Abundance of riper fruit:
  • Warmer region
  • Warmer vintage

 

• Abundance of tart and otherwise unripe fruit:
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage

 
Red wine

• Abundance of tart or under ripe red fruits:
  • Thinner-skinned grape
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage
  
  
• Abundance of darker riper fruit:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Warmer growing region
  • Warmer vintage

​Non-fruit characteristics

• Dominant floral notes:
  • Aromatic grape (Gewürztraminer, Muscat, Viognier, etc.)

 

• Herbal-vegetal notes (pyrazines):
  • Cabernet Sauvignon family grape including Sauvignon Blanc

 

• Pepper (rotundone):
  • Rhone grape variety (Syrah, Grenache, Mourvèdre), Zinfandel, and Grüner Veltliner for white

Earth-mineral qualities

• Pronounced earth and mineral qualities:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

 

• Lack of overt earth and mineral qualities:
  • New World region
  • New World style

Oak

• Dominant oak usage:
  • New World region
  • New World style

 

• Used or neutral oak character:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

Palate: Structure
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Acidity

• Higher natural acidity:
  • Cooler climate region
  • Cooler vintage

 

• Lower natural acidity:
  • Warmer climate region
  • Warmer vintage

 

• Acidulation/acidification:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • New World region
  • New World style

Alcohol

• Lower alcohol:
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage
  • Possible Old World region or style

 

• Higher alcohol:
  • Warmer growing region
  • Warmer vintage
  • Possible New World region or style

Phenolic bitterness (white wine)

• Little or no phenolic bitterness:
  • Non-aromatic grape variety

 

• Medium or higher phenolic bitterness:
  • Semi-aromatic or fully aromatic grape variety

Tannin (red wine)

• Lower tannin:
  • Thinner-skinned grape variety
  • Less new oak usage
  • Possible cooler climate region

 

• Higher tannin:
  • Thicker-skinner grape variety
  • More new oak usage
  • Possible warmer climate region

Finish

• Shorter finish:
  • Lesser quality wine
  • Less complex wine

 

• Longer finish:
  • Better quality wine
  • More complex wine

Conclusion
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• Old World or Old World style wine:
  • Less overt fruit qualities
  • More earth and mineral qualities
  • High natural acidity from cooler growing region
  • Lower alcohol from cooler growing region
  • Less new oak usage
  • Less winemaking influence

 

• New World or New World style wine:
  • More overt fruit qualities
  • Less earth and mineral qualities
  • Lower natural acidity from warmer growing region
  • Possible acidulation because of warmer growing region
  • Higher alcohol from warmer growing region
  • More new oak usage
  • More winemaking influence

I originally published this post almost five years ago. Since then I’ve come to believe that the concept of “cause and effect” is one of the very cornerstones in the process of becoming a good professional taster. For the record, the others are impact compounds and accurate/consistent assessment of structural elements. With that in mind, here is an updated version of my post from September of 2015. Hope you enjoy it.

Cause and Effect: The “Why” Behind Deductive Tasting

Anyone who’s had the pleasure of entertaining a three-year-old for any length of time knows the exquisite torture they can inflict by asking an endless series of “why” questions. One’s patience can only be tested so long before the inevitable and curt, “because I said so” puts an end to it. Beyond random acts of parenting, “why” questions have always seemed problematic to me because they potentially create endless loop communication. Why? Because at some point there may not be a reason why!

However, why questions are valuable in the context of deductive tasting. They speak to cause and effect in terms of why a wine looks, smells, and tastes the way it does. These cause and effect relationships are both useful and valuable for the student learning about classic grapes and wines in their tasting practice. Here are potential cause-effect relationships for all the criteria in the deductive tasting grid.

Sight

Sight is the most overlooked aspect of tasting. I realize this may seem like an irritating pun, but it’s all too true as far as cause and effect is concerned. With experience, a quick look at a glass of wine—especially red wine—can and should build multiple expectations on the part of the taster in regards to the possible grape variety, fruit profile, structural elements, and the use of oak. Here is the “sight” portion of the deductive grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Clarity: Is a result of fining and filtration during the latter stages of the winemaking process. The clarity scale ranges from a cloudy wine that’s completely unfined and unfiltered to a crystal clear wine that’s put through considerable fining and filtration—and everything in between.

Brightness: Brightness in wine—especially in white wines—is a function of clarity, which is a direct result of the degree of fining and filtration. The brightness level in a red wine is also determined by the depth of pigmentation in various grape varieties.  Thinner-skinned, lighter-pigmented grapes such as Pinot Noir and Gamay will reflect far more light than Syrah or Cabernet Sauvignon.

Intensity of color: In white wines, the intensity of color can be the result of the climate of origin (fruit ripeness level) as well as the age or level of oxidation in the wine due to use of oak or time in bottle. Botrytis-affected fruit or extended skin contact can also play a role in a deeper-colored white wine. With red wines, intensity of color is largely due to the depth of pigmentation in a specific variety and likewise the age and oxidation of the given wine.

Primary color: The base color of a white wine—be it straw, yellow, gold, or brown—is largely determined by the degree of oxidation during winemaking or the time spent in barrel or bottle. Skin contact and the presence of botrytis can also contribute to a deeper color. The primary color in red wine—purple, ruby (red) or garnet (reddish brown) --is again determined by the depth of pigmentation of the specific grape (Pinot Noir vs. Syrah), age, or level of oxidation.

Secondary colors: In white wines the color green can signify either youth and/or a wine produced from grapes grown in a cooler climate. The colors platinum, silver, and unpolished brass often accompany the color green in a young white wine. In red wines secondary colors usually refer to rim variation (see below).

Rim variation: Is a term used to denote the color differentiation between wine in the center/core of the glass and wine at the edge/rim. The cause has to do with the amount of pigmentation in the specific grape, climate of origin, the ripeness level of fruit at harvest, and age of the wine. Generally, the older the wine, the more rim variation and the more evolved the color at the edge/rim of the glass. It’s important to note that rim variation is not significant for white wines.

Sediment: Sediment in a glass of red wine is due to either age (pigments and tannins precipitating out of solution) or non-filtration in the case of a younger wine. Tartrates, or tartaric acid crystals, in either white or red wine are the result of the wine not having been cold stabilized or having been minimally fined and filtered. 

Gas: Bubbles in a glass of wine can be a product of primary fermentation, malolactic fermentation/conversion, or from CO2 added to the wine as a preservative at the time of bottling.

Tears/legs: While often debated and certainly not exact science, the tears/legs in a glass of wine are a first indication of the possible level of alcohol or the presence of residual sugar. Thin, quickly moving tears often show a lower alcohol level and/or the lack of residual sugar in a wine. By contrast, thick, slowly moving tears are commonly associated with higher levels of alcohol and the possible presence of residual sugar.
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Staining of the tears: In red wine, staining of the tears is a result of the depth of pigmentation in the specific grape as well as elevated levels of dry extract in the wine (dissolved solids in solution). Dry extract is further related to lower yields, age of vines, and the degree of fining/filtration used during winemaking. 

Nose

The aroma of a wine is derived from a myriad of influences, including the specific grape variety, climate of origin, harvest timing, and any number of winemaking practices. Here is the “nose” portion of the grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Fault factor: Does the wine smell clean and well-made or does it contain one or more common wine faults? These include TCA (from faulty corks or contaminated tanks or barrels), high VA (Volatile Acidity from a problematic fermentation), Brettanomyces (barrel or winery hygiene issues), sulfur aromas such as H2S or mercaptan (fermentation issues), or excess SO2 added at the time of bottling.  

Intensity of aroma: The overall intensity of aroma can be related to the specific grape variety, the climate of origin (ripeness levels), structural elements (high alcohol), and winemaking influence in the form of malolactic fermentation, oak usage, and more.

Age: Indicators of age in a wine are due to oxidative winemaking (extensive racking, not topping up, etc.), extended wood-aging, or time in bottle.

Primary and secondary fruit: Specific kinds of fruit smelled in wine are derived from esters and other aromatic compounds that result from fermentation. The condition of the grape (i.e., botrytis) at harvest can also play a part.

Quality of fruit: The quality of the fruit, be it tart, ripe, or jammy, is the result of the climate of origin, specific harvest year (warm vintage etc.), harvest timing (late harvest, passito etc.), and the overall age/oxidation of the wine.

Non-fruit: Is derived from certain compounds found in grapes, the condition of the grapes (botrytis) at harvest, fermentation, or from the winemaking techniques (ML, lees contact, etc.).

Inorganic earth: While it continues to be a subject of debate in some circles, recent science has shown how the relationship between the microbiome and yeast population in vineyard soils affect fermentation resulting in compounds in the finished wine that are perceived as—and called--“earth and mineral.”

Organic earth: Same as above. The presence of Brettanomyces and/or Dekkora in a wine derived from the vineyard soil or the winery environment should also be considered as a possible cause of earthiness.
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Wood: The use of oak during fermentation and aging can lend a wide range of aromas to wine, including vanilla (vanillin) brown spices, coffee, tea, chocolate, toast, smoke, dill and more. The age, size, and type of barrel all play an important role in the intensity of oak influence. 

Palate

Oddly enough, actually tasting a wine in the context of the deductive process only has two purposes: to confirm what has already been smelled and to determine the level of structural elements, including acid, alcohol, tannin, and phenolic bitterness. Here is the “palate” grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Sweetness/dryness: Wine is fermented completely dry or can contain a varying amount of residual sugar due to the fermentation having been stopped. The latter is accomplished by a number of winemaking practices, including sterile filtration, the addition of SO2, or fortification.

Body: In wine is determined by a number of factors, including the level of alcohol/glycerin in the wine (due to the degree of fruit ripeness at harvest) and the level of dry extract (particulate matter in solution). Dry extract levels are further determined by the quality of fruit and the degree of fining and filtration the wine undergoes before bottling. High levels of residual sugar can also lend a fuller body to a wine.

Fruit: Specific kinds of fruit smelled in wine are derived from esters and other aromatic compounds naturally found in grapes, as well as the result of fermentation. The condition of the grapes at harvest (botrytis) can also play a part.

Quality of fruit: Often changes from nose to palate and is again determined by the ripeness level of fruit at harvest, the specific harvest year (warm vintage etc.), harvest timing (late harvest, passito etc.), and the overall age or oxidation of the wine.

Inorganic/organic earth: As described above, earth and mineral aromas and flavors in wine are the result of how the microbiome and yeast population in vineyard soil affect fermentation and ultimately chemical compounds in the finished wine. The possibility of Brett as a factor for earthiness must again be considered.

Oak: Flavors from the use of oak during fermentation and/or aging.

Alcohol: The alcohol level is a product of the ripeness of fruit at harvest or other means used to either increase grape sugar (chaptalization) prior to fermentation. Methods such as adding water to the must (or wine), cross-flow filtration, and reverse osmosis can be used to decrease alcohol in the finished wine.

Acidity: The acidity level is a result of the ripeness of fruit/level at harvest or the addition of tartaric acid to the must or finished wine before bottling.

Tannin: Is derived from grape skins through pre-fermentation maceration, during fermentation, and post-fermentation maceration. It can be increased by the addition of press wine. Cooperage also plays an important role in the level of tannin in a wine in regards to the duration of time wine is kept in barrel, the size and type of cask, and the percentage of new vs. used oak used. Finally, powdered tannin is also commonly added at several different stages during the fermentation and aging of red wine.

Phenolic bitterness: Bitter phenolic compounds in white wines are developed when the must is in contact with grape skins before, during, or after fermentation. 

Finish: The length and quality of the finish is determined by the quality of the fruit, the intensity and level of structural elements (alcohol, acidity, tannin, and phenolic bitterness), and winemaking practices such as ML, lees contact, the use of oak, and more.
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Complexity: Although arguably the most subjective aspect the deductive grid and process, the degree of complexity is determined by a combination of fruit and vineyard quality, quality of the vintage/harvest, and winemaker's skill--or lack thereof.

Conclusion

After collecting all the “evidence” seen, smelled, and tasted in a wine, the conclusion is based on previous memory and experience. Here cause and effect still play a vital role in deductive thinking in terms of determining Old vs. New World style, grape variety, origin of the wine, level of quality, and the vintage. Here is the “conclusion” grid—both initial and final-- broken down into cause and effect elements.

Initial Conclusion

Old World Style vs. New World Style: Is primarily influenced by the specific location of the vineyard, be it in Europe or a New World country such as Australia. Winemaking techniques, such as blending different appellations and/or grape varieties, high alcohol, excessive oak, and considerable filtration can also play a part in influencing or obscuring style.

Climate: The specific location of the vineyard (cool vs. warm climate) and given conditions of a certain growing year (warmer vintage).

Grape variety: Assessing the possible grape variety involves using common markers for classic grapes including compounds such pyrazines (Cabernet family grapes including Sauvignon Blanc), rotundone (Syrah and Grüner Veltliner), and more.

General age: Determined by the overall degree of oxidation (or lack of) perceived in the wine.

Final Conclusion

Grape variety(s): Taken from common markers and factors perceived in the wine.

Country, region, appellation (if applicable): The specific origin of the wine.

Quality level: Balance and typicity of the wine as well as the origin and respective laws if applicable.

Vintage: The quality of the wine as related to specific vintage character and attributes (ripeness, structural elements).

Final thoughts

As with learning deductive tasting, getting familiar with the concept of cause and effect and how it applies to the deductive grid is something that takes time and a good deal of practice. I recommend “chunking” it down into groups of three-to-five bits so it can more easily be learned and used. I also recommend cornering a friend or family member and, with glass of wine in hand, explain cause and effect to them. If you can do that, you absolutely know it and will never forget it.

Cheers!

*A note about the art work in this post. Painter and photographer Diana LoMeiHing was born in Hong Kong and moved to Italy at the age of ten. In 1978 she graduated with honors in painting at the Brera Academy of Fine Arts in Milan. She has exhibited in solo and collective exhibitions in galleries in Italy and internationally since 1979. 

Perhaps the most often asked question is about the meaning of life. The answer is, of course, 42. Sorry, inside joke. The second most often asked question is what happens to wine as it ages. That question has a far more problematic answer because scientists don’t fully know what happens to wine as it ages in the bottle. And what they do know they can’t even agree on. Exhibit “A,” a quote from the chapter on Oxidation from Jamie Goode’s latest book Flawless: Understanding Common Wine Faults:

“I would add, that the exact mechanisms of chemical oxidation of wine are still not completely understood, and there are multiple theories to explain the chemistry at this point. This is a somewhat controversial field.”

Wine as a living thing is never static in the bottle. The alcohol and acids react together constantly to form new compounds while other compounds dissolve. These changes happen over time and at different rates. No surprise that every time a bottle is opened the wine inside is at a different stage in its evolution.

There are no hard or fast answers to the wine aging question. However, we in the industry need to be able to understand the general changes that tend to take place in wine as it ages in regards to the way it looks, smells, tastes, and even feels on the palate. Further, we need to able to communicate these changes to our customers/clients/guests in such a way as to be easily understandable and avoid putting them into a deep trance.

This post is an attempt to do just that. For the consumer, this post will provide some information about what tends to happen in wine as it ages. Notice the emphasis on the word tends. For the sommelier or other industry professional, I’ve included some suggested language to use when describing an older wine to a guest or consumer so as not to confuse or intimidate. Finally, I've included some FAQ's on wine and aging. Onward. 

How Wine Tends to Change with Age
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Color

Most reading this post will already know that white and blush wines grow darker in color as they age, while red wines do the opposite—they get lighter in color because pigments and tannin precipitate out of solution. Over time the color in wine will change to show oxidation in various ways, and the color intensity will usually diminish as well. The following changes in color generally apply.

White wines: Straw and pale-yellow color in a young wine vs. deeper yellow, gold, and even amber in an older wine.

Pink wines: Various shades of pink in a young rosé vs. salmon and orange in an older wine.

Red wines: Vibrant ruby or purple in a young wine vs. various shades of garnet or garnet-brown in an older wine.

Aromas and Flavors

Fruit: Generally, young wine offers more overt primary fruit aromas and flavors vs. an aged wine. After a time, wine will also show less primary fruit with secondary (even tertiary) non-fruit and earth-mineral aromas and tending to dominate. It’s also fairly easy to recognize two or more distinct kinds of fruit in a young wine but difficult in an older wine where the fruit has melded together.

Fruit quality: Fresh, vibrant fruit in a young wine vs. dried, stewed, compoted, or raisinated fruit in an older wine.

Non-fruit floral: Fresh flowers and blossoms in a young wine vs. dried flowers, pressed flowers, or potpourri in an older wine.

Non-fruit herbal: Fresh green herbs in a young wine vs. dried herbs in an older wine.

Non-fruit spice (either pepper-spice or oak spice): Fresh spices in a young wine vs. dried spices in an older wine.

Earth-mineral: Wines with age show more pronounced earth and mineral character simply because the decreased intensity of fruit and non-fruit elements.

Oak: Overt vanilla and spice character in a young wine with new oak vs. dried, less distinct spice in an older wine. Also, less overall overt oak presence.

Important! Note the pattern here. Over time practically everything in a wine regarding aroma and flavor goes from fresh to dry. Thus it doesn't make sense to describe a wine as having dried fruit and fresh herb notes. An aged wine will show dried fruit, dried herb notes, and less overt oak if any was used in the winemaking process.

Structure

How does our perception of the structural element in wine change as it ages? What are the reasons for the change vs. the wine simply smelling and tasting different? The answer involves a myriad of factors.

Residual sugar: The level of measurable residual sugar in wine does not change with age. However, over time certain molecules and aldehydes form new combinations that can change our perception of sweetness, making an older wine tastes drier.

Acidity: Once bottled, the level of acidity in a wine remains almost constant with age. However, our perception of acidity in a wine changes over time for various reasons. In white wine with residual sugar, the level of acidity can seem higher after considerable aging because our perception of the level of sweetness is less. Likewise, a high acid red wine seems more acidic with age because there’s less overall fruit.  

Alcohol: After fermentation the alcohol level in a wine remains the same. However, as phenolic compounds link together and the wine’s primary flavors fade with age, there may be times during a wine’s development when the alcohol will seem more or less pronounced.
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Tannin: Tannins found in grape skins and seeds taste bitter and feel astringent on the palate. Over time, tannins soften because they polymerize, or form long chains with each other. The tannin polymer molecules taste less bitter and feel less harsh compared to those in a younger wine. Also, some of the tannins will precipitate out of the wine as sediment with age making it smoother--for lack of a better term--on the palate. 

More on Them Changes

Given all the above, here are examples of certain wines and how they tend to change over time. As previously noted, all are general tendencies.

Vintage Champagne

Young Wine

Sight: Pale straw color with hints of green and a persistent bead (bubbles).
Nose and Palate: Tart vibrant apple-pear and citrus fruit, floral, autolytic notes (from the breakdown of yeast left from secondary fermentation) of yeast, toast, brioche, and possible earth-mineral notes.

Aged Wine

Sight: Brassy straw in color and less persistent bead.
Nose and Palate: Dried orchard and citrus fruit, dried floral, more pronounced toasty autolytic character, and more pronounced earth-mushroom-mineral character.

Riesling - Mosel Spätlese

Young Wine
Sight: Pale straw color with green.
Nose and Palate: A myriad of fresh vibrant fruit including green apple, stone fruit, tropical fruit, and sweet/tart citrus fruit. Also, fresh citrus blossom, possible lees character (yeast); slate mineral, and little, if any, TDN/petrol character.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow gold in color with hints of green.
Nose and Palate: Less fruit overall and the fruit quality is dried/preserved. Also, dried floral, crystalized honey, more pronounced slate mineral quality, and more TDN/petrol character.

Chardonnay - California

Young Wine
Sight: Light yellow in color with hint of green.
Nose and Palate: Fresh and ripe apple-pear, tropical, and citrus fruit with lees notes (yeast, bread dough, etc.), butter from malolactic fermentation/conversion, and pronounced vanilla-spice notes from new oak usage.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow-gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, or compoted fruit including apple-pear and citrus with less distinct lees, butterscotch, and spice character from oak influence. Also, oxidative notes such as honey and roasted nuts.

Chardonnay – Cote de Beaune

Young Wine
Sight: Straw-yellow in color with green.
Nose and Palate: Fresh and ripe apple-pear and citrus fruit with lees (yeast, bread dough, etc.), butter from malolactic fermentation/conversion, possible matchstick-mercaptan-SO2 notes, mineral-earth notes, and vanilla spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow-gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, or compoted fruit including apple and preserved citrus with less distinct lees, butterscotch, more pronounced mineral-mushroom-earth notes, and any matchstick-SO2 integrated into the wine. Also, less overt oak influence but with honey and roasted nut oxidative notes.

Pinot Noir – New World

Young Wine
Sight: Medium ruby color with pink hue.
Nose and Palate: Bright, fresh red fruit (red cherry, cranberry, and strawberry) with fresh rose floral, green herb, and oak spices.

Aged Wine
Sight: Garnet-ruby in color with secondary lighter garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried-compoted red fruit, dried floral and herb, possible tertiary mineral and earth notes, and less spice from oak.

Pinot Noir – Red Burgundy

Young Wine
Sight: Medium ruby color with pink hue.
Nose and Palate: Bright, fresh red fruit (red cherry, cranberry, and strawberry) with rose floral, green herb/tea, possible green stemmy notes, mineral-earth, and vanilla-spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Garnet-ruby in color with secondary lighter garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried, desiccated red fruit with dried floral, herb, tea, stems, and pronounced mineral-earth notes including game, truffle, and mushroom. Also, less spice and overt oak influence. Note that a fine aged red Burgundy often displays complexities on the nose and palate that are almost impossible to describe.

Syrah – Barossa Shiraz

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe, jammy black fruit (blackberry, cherry, and plum), tart red fruit (cherry and cranberry), and dried fruit (raisin, prune, date, and fig). Also, black pepper spice, savory herb, mint and eucalyptus, savory notes (soy and beef jerky), and pronounced vanilla-spice from new oak.

Aged Wine:
Sight: Deep purple with garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried raisinated character overall with riper and tarter elements. Also, dried pepper, leather, mint, herbs, dried savory spice and meat, and less pronounced oak.

Syrah – Northern Rhone

Young Wine
Sight: Deep purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe and tart black fruit (blackberry, cherry, and plum), tart red fruit (cherry and cranberry), and dried fruit (date and fig). Also black and/or white pepper spice, fresh floral, green herb, savory notes (soy, jerky, iodine, and blood), mineral-earth, and oak notes including smoke, toast, and spice.

Aged Wine
Sight: Faded purple-garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried raisinated fruit character overall with riper and tarter notes. Also, dried pepper, dried floral and herbs, dried savory spice, savory meaty character, pronounced mineral-earth-mushroom, and less overt oak notes. Like aged red Burgundy, a top-quality Syrah from Cornas, Hermitage, or Cote Rotie can show remarkable complexity over time that defies description.

Cabernet Sauvignon – California

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe, jammy, and concentrated black fruit and raisinated fruit with violet floral, green herb, and pronounced new oak notes including vanilla, spices, toast, and more.

Aged Wine
Sight: Deep ruby garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried black and raisinated fruit with dried floral, dried herb, cedar, graphite, and less oak influence.

Cabernet Sauvignon Blend - Bordeaux

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby in color.
Nose and Palate: Concentrated, vibrant black fruit (cherry, berry, currant, and plum) and tart red fruit (cherry and currant) with violet floral, green herb-vegetal, mineral-earth notes, and vanilla-spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Deep ruby garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, and compoted black and red fruit with dried floral, dried herb-vegetal, more pronounced mushroom-earth-mineral, and less spice and oak influence.

Botrytis Sweet Semillon Blend - Bordeaux

Young Wine
Sight: Deep straw-yellow in color.
Nose and Palate: Candied ripe stone fruit (peach, apricot, and nectarine), sweet citrus (orange, Mandarin, and tangerine) with honeysuckle floral, honey, mineral-earth, and pronounced new oak character with vanilla and spice.
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Aged Wine
Sight: Deep burnished gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, crystalized stone fruit and preserved sweet citrus fruit and citrus peel with dried floral and pronounced botrytis notes including dried honey, saffron, and marmalade. Also, pronounced mushroom and dark earth character with less overt oak spice notes.

Talking Them Changes

Describing wine is never easy. There’s no inherent vocabulary for it and we in the industry have long been guilty of shamelessly pilfering terms from other unrelated fields. There’s also the curious inverse ratio of experience vs. subjectivity as in, the more experience with tasting, the less subjective wine is. Thus to a beginner the wine experience is almost completely subjective, while to someone with years or even decades of experience tasting is almost completely objective. This makes describing an older wine to a curious novice challenging at best. Language really matters when it comes describing an older bottle. Here are some suggested dos and don’ts for speaking the language of an older wine, as well as a couple terms that usually need explaining.

Descriptors to use: dried, jammy, candied, preserved, and savory. Also--and these may require explanation--integrated, married, and melded.

Descriptors to avoid: oxidized, faded, musty, dank, dying, and generally anything that can easily be associated with “old.”  

Terms that need explanation:

Bottle bouquet: the aromas of a wine with age as in all the above.

Vinous: the qualities of a red wine with age as in dried fruit, dried herbs and spices, leather, earth, and integrated oak.

Wine Aging FAQ’s

Over the years I’ve been asked many questions about wine and aging. Here are some of the most common ones and my answers.

Does old wine taste better than young wine?
The answer depends completely on you. If you’re familiar with the character of an aged wine, then odds are you’ll like the subtlety and complexity notes of an older bottle. If that’s not the case then you will probably be put off by the dried and earthy notes in an older wine.

What does old wine taste like?
See above: lots of notes on older wines and how they differ from younger vintages.

Does aroma decrease with age?
The answer is generally no. However, the intensity of aroma in certain wines may seem perceptibly less because the aromatics have evolved to such a great extent. 
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Anything to know about pairing an older wine with food? 
Good question! The overt primary flavors of a young wine can handle much more intensity in a dish such as using garlic or onions, or cooking techniques such as grilling. Not so with an older wine. Subtlety in the dish and letting the wine take center stage are the keys. A strongly flavored dish can bury the complex flavors of an older wine. Be mindful of balance!

Is an old wine worth the extra cost?
The answer again depends on you. Older wine will always make it more expensive because someone had to initially buy it and then store it. If you like older wine and have the disposable income, the extra cost may be worth it.

Should I order old wine in a restaurant?
If a celebratory occasion calls for it, by all means yes—but with a caveat. The restaurant in question must have a good wine program with a well-established cellar and a dedicated buyer/sommelier. If you are going to spend the big bucks for an older bottle in a restaurant it’s not unreasonable to ask how the bottle was acquired, how long the restaurant has owned it, and how it’s been stored. All are reasonable questions that any sommelier/buyer should be able to answer.

Do all wines age?
Yes, all wines age--as in, eventually becoming oxidized and ultimately vinegar. However, some wines take far more time than others to go through the aging process. Most go through the evolution quickly within a year or two. 

What wines age best?
Top quality sweet wines, fortified sweet wines, and certain red wines tend to age the best and/or longest.

Are aged wines better than un-aged wines?
Context is important here. Who is to say that a bottle of just-released Prosecco enjoyed with the woman/man of your dreams during a beautiful sunset isn’t every bit as amazing and memorable as an uber expensive bottle of 20-year-old Chateau Latour enjoyed in some formal dining room? Note the difference here between a great wine experience vs. a great wine. Both are relevant.

What are the best conditions to age wine?
Great question--and a very important one as well. Proper conditions for cellaring wine are a constant temperature of between 55-60 degrees with a minimum of 60% humidity, and no source of light or vibration. A constant, cool temperature and darkness are key.

When should I drink my bottle?
This is a short question with a very long answer. As the wise Inigo Montoya once said, “Too long. Let me sum up.” The following variables come into play:

1. Wine type: What kind of wine is it? Something just purchased at Albertson’s with a plastic cork that’s meant to be opened and enjoyed now and over the next several months? Or a quality bottle that has the capability to age? The price you paid for the bottle will also be an important clue. Less money equals a wine that’s intended to be enjoyed near term and not aged.
2. Storage conditions: If you don’t have a place with the right conditions to store wine long term all bets are off. Drink your bottle soon as in over the next two weeks.
3. Personal preference: Do you actually like the smell and taste of an older wine? The answer is probably not unless you’ve not had more than a few experiences with aged wine. If that’s the case, drink up!

 
What phone app do you recommend that has aging recommendations for wines?
I recommend an app called BottleCru (www.bottlecru.com) that was developed Ken Schroeder, a friend and colleague. BottleCru uses avatars to help consumers understand the different styles of classic grapes and wines. It also includes recommendations on when to enjoy wines as well as a remarkably robust database for food and wine pairing and cheese and wine pairing.

I’ve had X bottle of wine for some time now at home. When should I drink it?
This is perhaps the commonly asked question about aging wine—and the answer could be the only thing you ever need to remember. If you are holding a bottle of wine in hand and asking yourself if you should open it, the answer 999 out of 1,000 times is a resounding YES. For god’s sake, open the bottle and drink it. The very rare exception—and I do mean rare—is if the wine is a very expensive and/or rare bottle of something that is the only bottle of whatever it is you own. Say it’s a bottle of Petrus, Hill of Grace, or La Tâche. Then you might pause for a moment and consider whether the occasion, the company, and the meal call for such a spectacular bottle. Only then should you hesitate. Otherwise, open and enjoy the wine. After all, that’s what it’s for. 
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*A final thought: if you’ve been wondering about the title of this post, wonder no more. I offer the following photograph of the late Jimi Hendrix and Buddy Miles taken in San Francisco in 1967. If you’ve never heard the live version of Miles’ song “Them Changes” with Hendrix playing lead recorded at the Fillmore in 1970, you simply must (www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHU5Le-2d6k). And now you know. Cheers!

Last fall I had a rare half-day free in New York after a meeting. That night I shared dinner with good friends Beth Cotenoff, of Teuwen Communications, and Ron Merlino. Ron has owned a classical artists management company called MusicVine for over 20 years. His clients include top orchestral conductors and classical pianists. In his not-so-copious free time Ron also has an ongoing academic research project on the role wine played in the lives of the great composers. Previously, I posted an interview I did with him in July of 2018. 
​
During conversation Ron told us about a presentation he would be giving the following month to a group celebrating the 100th anniversary of the San Francisco Girls Chorus. The title of his talk was “Prohibition, Suffrage, and Early Women Winemakers in 19th and 20th Century America.” The information Ron shared with us based on his research was amazing. Other than Lilly Langtry and Isabelle Simi, I had never heard of any of the women, all of whom owned and ran wineries. Perhaps there’s a good reason why. These women were not especially supportive of the Suffrage movement. That may seem shocking, but it’s important to know that in the latter half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Suffrage and Prohibition movements were linked. It’s a complex story and some background is needed to understand how these two very different movements came to be unified.

​The following is taken from a transcript of Ron’s presentation. I have edited it for length but the content is taken entirely from his narrative which unified the work of many fine historians and their research.
 
“Prohibition, Suffrage, and Early Women Winemakers in the 19th and 20th Century America.”
 
By Ron Merlino
 
The last few years have celebrated the hundredth anniversaries of the 18th and 19th amendments enacting Prohibition and granting women the right to vote, respectively. What few today realize is that both movements were indelibly linked - each could not have occurred without the other. Their story is a truly American one - a tale of immigration, cultural diversity, civil liberty, human rights, and religion. They are also a reminder to us all of racism, isolationism, xenophobia, and corruption. To fully understand this, it is necessary to view the key events that preceded the passing of these two amendments.
 
1848-58: The gold rush brings thousands to California, including immigrants from every corner of the globe and scores of Americans from the East Coast and the Midwest.
 
1865: With the end of the Civil War, the 13th Amendment is ratified abolishing slavery.
 
1868: The 14th amendment passes, granting freed slaves and their descendants citizenship rights.
 
1869: The Transcontinental Railroad is finally completed - a huge achievement that required the labor of freed slaves. Massive speculation and investment in the West ensued and many businesses overextended their resources and capacity.
 
1870: The 15th amendment grants black men the right to vote.
 
1873: On May 9th the Vienna Stock Market crashes. By Sept 20th the New York Stock Exchange had closed its doors for 20 full days. By Thanksgiving, three quarters of the newly formed railroad companies in the US cease operations due to over-speculation in the West. The first global world financial crisis ensues - the Panic of 1873.
 
1873: On Dec 23rd, the first Women’s Christian Temperance Conference was held in Hillsboro, Ohio. It was fueled by frustration and pent up anger over the rising tide of alcoholism and the violence that alcohol encouraged men to perpetuate against women. But it was also the inevitable end result of women having watched the rights of blacks and freed slaves find a legal voice before their own, movements they had supported but which still left them disenfranchised.
 
It is not by chance that this first Conference took place only miles away from the well-known wine country of the Ohio River Valley - the Cincinnati vineyards that had defined the face of American wine culture to that point in history.
 
The Temperance women opposed the Northern Republican party’s dominance of national politics. They published pamphlets claiming women’s moral superiority to men, espousing that a man’s only hope to rise to a woman’s higher moral ground would be to reject alcohol, tobacco, and lust.
 
Southern Democrats watched this Temperance movement carefully, cleverly adopting the platform of National Prohibition. Not only could banning alcohol allow them to enforce their continued oppressive and isolationist policies, but it could now help them regain control of the national government. What began as a worthy idea among responsible women who actually believed that wine was to be encouraged over hard liquor--NOT that all alcohol should be banned-- morphed into a frenzy of extremist Temperance crusades, a social wave that conservative-minded businessmen and politicians co-opted for their own motives.
 
1909: The 16th amendment establishes a Federal Income Tax. Overnight the alcohol tax as an important source of federal government revenue vanished and the way was paved for national Prohibition to become a reality.
 
Naturally, many men and women resisted this push to take away their freedom to drink. In those long, tortuous final ten years leading up to 1919, the savviest politicians understood that Prohibition as an amendment could not pass without the grassroots community efforts of the suffragettes who raised their voices to pressure hesitant and undecided women. In the end, it worked. A woman’s right to vote would be publicly tied to the passing of Prohibition.
 
But success had a dear and lasting price, for not all women were lockstep in unison by any means. Many women wanted the freedom to serve and to be served alcohol, and a small courageous group of them actually owned wineries and made wine. California emerged as a hot bed of anti-suffrage sentiment among women as a result of its economic significance in the wine trade. Famous California wine women like Lilly Langtry actually stepped away from her initial support of the suffrage movement. Other notable figures such as Isabelle Simi actively circumvented the law and blatantly defied the Prohibition regulations. But the true pioneers were left forgotten, perhaps because of their uncomfortable place in the otherwise moral triumph of Suffragism in America. This is their story. 

Napa: Hannah Weinberger and Josephine Tychson
 
Hannah Weinberger

John Weinberger was a businessman and winemaker from Germany who had emigrated to America in 1848. He first learned the wine trade working at Nicholas Longworth Vineyards in Cincinnati. John met his wife Hannah in Ohio, and the two moved west during the Gold Rush Years. Once in California, John quickly excelled as a wine producer in St. Helena. He also became president of the local Bank of St. Helena and was known as a close friend to two other German wine pioneers in Napa; Jacob Beringer of Beringer Vineyards and Jacob Schram of Schramsberg.

At the time, the JC Weinberger wines were considered equals to those of Beringer and Schram. The Weinberger brand and story are only forgotten today due to John’s untimely death in 1882, when he was gunned down in broad daylight on the platform of the St. Helena railroad station by a disgruntled employee.
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Upon John’s death, Hannah took over running the winery. She also assumed John’s post as head of the bank. Hannah quickly established a national presence for her wines and successfully marketed them in major cities including St Louis, Cincinnati, and New York.
 
In 1889 her Cabernet Sauvignon was entered in the Paris World Expo. It won a silver medal, not only making her the first woman winemaker from the United States to be given an award on the world stage, but the first California wine to ever be awarded an international medal.
 
Hannah’s winery remained prosperous until 1920 when it was forced to close due to Prohibition. She passed away at the age of 91. Today her vineyards are part of the William Cole winery holdings across Highway 29 from the Markham winery.
 
Josephine Tychson
 
If you run a Google search for “pioneer California women winemakers,” Josephine Tychson’s name will probably come up first. After losing her husband to suicide during his battle with tuberculosis, Josephine undertook an extensive rebuilding of his winery and oversaw the very first harvest. She kept the business alive until 1895 when she decided to sell it to the then burgeoning giant Italian Swiss Colony. The winery, located near St. Helena, still stands today as part of Freemark Abbey Wines. The vines surrounding her original home are used to produce the Tychson Vineyard Cabernets made by Ann Colgin.

The Sonoma Trio: Eliza Shaw Hood, Ellen Stuart, and Kate Warfield
 
Aside from Hannah Weinberger and Josephine Tychson, the earliest pioneers of women in California wine were not from Napa—they were from Sonoma. Though they have been largely forgotten, their legacy is remarkable. Eliza Shaw Hood, Ellen Stuart, and Kate Warfield all hailed from Glen Ellen. All three lived and worked near one another, and all three took over the wineries owned by their respective husbands in the late 1870s and early 1880s.
 
Eliza Shaw Hood
 
Eliza Shaw Hood and her husband William Hood settled the area of Glen Ellen in 1848. Previously, William Hood had come from Scotland and was a carpenter by trade. He made a fortune during the urban boom of San Francisco following the Gold Rush. In 1851 he purchased a 30 square mile tract of land called Rancho Guiluco on which stood a mountain that is named after him (Mt. Hood).
 
Unfortunately, William was committed to a local asylum in later years, and Eliza took over the winery in 1877. That date makes her the first and earliest known woman to run a winery in California. At the time the estate vineyard was planted entirely to the Mission grape. Eliza hired Auguste Drioton, a French viticultural expert who had previously published a book on the handling of phylloxera. With his help, she grafted the vineyard over to a wide variety of vitis vinifera.
 
The Eliza Hood Cabernets, Rieslings, and Semillons became widely acclaimed and her brandy was successful as well. Over time, production increased to over 100,000 gallons of wine and 5,000 gallons of brandy. In 1897 she too sold her winery to the Italian Swiss Colony and then moved to San Francisco where she lived until 1918.
 
Ellen Stuart
 
Ellen Stuart also married a Scotsman, Charles Stuart. Like the Hoods, they came to Sonoma at the peak of the Gold Rush in 1849. Charles bought a 1000-acre land grant called Agua Caliente that ran parallel to today’s Highway 12. He planted vines and named the estate Glen Ellen to honor of his wife and Scottish heritage. The Stuart estate was one of the first vineyards in the region. By 1863 there were 40 acres planted, and in 1869 a stone winery house was built that still stands. In 1880 Charles died suddenly and Ellen found herself supervising the crush of the now 90-acre vineyard. Over the next decade she made and marketed the estate’s wines until phylloxera devastated the vineyard in 1890. Given the time frame, one can make the argument that Ellen Stuart was the earliest known woman winemaker in California.
 
Kate Warfield
 
Kate Warfield was known as the “lady vineyardist” in her time. Her husband Jacob Warfield came to California from Ohio in 1849 and built a successful trading business in Gold Country. When Charles and Ellen Stuart sold him part of their estate in 1862, Jacob named the winery Ten Oaks and planted 16 acres of Mission vines. After his after his death in 1878, Kate took over the vineyard and winery operation. She hired a French winemaker and grafted the Mission vines over to other European varieties.
 
In 1883 Kate entered her brandy in the California State Fair contest and won top prize. However, the result was contested by an all-male judging panel who believed it impossible that a woman could make a better brandy than a man. A second testing was held on the spot and yielded identical results.
 
In 1886 Warfield was awarded top marks for her Cabernet, Syrah, and Sauvignon Blanc at the San Francisco Mechanics Fair Tasting, the preeminent California wine event at the time. She also became widely known as an advocate for phylloxera-resistant root stocks and was considered the most talented vine grower in California in her time.
 
The success of these three women is remarkable. However, there's more to their story. Together, they brought a legal petition to the Sonoma County Superior Court in the early 1880s. In the petition they argued for the right to operate their wineries as “sole traders,” a legal designation necessary to run a commercial business in the state of California. At the time, the sole trader status was rarely granted to women. However, by sheer force of will, courage, and intellect they won their case and gained the right to operate as female proprietors of their estates.
 
While it’s far from a thrilling plot line, this singular achievement set the stage for women in the industry who would follow in the coming decades. The Sonoma Trio were not only true pioneers for women’s rights, they also paved the way for women winemakers in America.

Frona Eunice Wait
 
Finally, the brilliant journalism of Frona Eunice Wait, without whom most of the written history described above would have been lost. Wait was born in the gold rush territory in 1859. Early on she displayed a gift for journalism, landing her first job with the Santa Rosa Republican. Her talents were soon noticed by William Randolph Hearst and in 1887, at age 28, she was hired by Hearst as the first female staff journalist for the San Francisco Chronicle and Examiner newspapers.
 
Two years later Wait published the first of two seminal books on the California wine industry: Wines and Vines of California: A Treatise on the Ethics of Wine Drinking (1889). It was immediately hailed as a definitive contemporary work on California wine. In writing the book, she interviewed every winemaker she could find, visiting vineyards, cataloguing grape varieties, explaining production methods, and listing the unique accomplishments of each and every vintner and producer. It’s only because of her work that we have such a vivid and accurate picture of what wine in California was actually like at the time. Wait went on to publish a second book on California wine, as well as a book on Spanish wine and several other history works. In 1897 she published a novel, Yermah the Dorado, which many consider to be the very first science fiction work ever written.
 
With the mention of “ethics of drinking” in the title of her first book, it comes as no surprise that Ms. Wait was an avid anti-Suffragist and anti-Prohibitionist. She actively campaigned against both initiatives. Her pamphlet, 80 Percent of the Women in California Do Not Want the Vote, was printed in 1915 at the height of the resistance efforts to both amendments. The work was immensely popular and reprinted and distributed on the East Coast and across the South.
 
Wait’s writing is full of life and teems with character even when focused on mundane things such as soil and vines. She is truly one of the great—and controversial--figures of California wine in the early 20th century. Today Wait reminds us that there are many hidden, yet extraordinary women in the history of American wine in the challenging and profoundly important years leading up to Prohibition and Women’s Right to Vote. And that the story is never black and white but rather full of shades and nuances. Most importantly, the story of women in California wine history deserves a great deal more attention, advocacy, and voice--even if it doesn’t fit comfortably into the accepted narrative as we have come to know it. But it’s truly an American story; one of courage and belief in one’s convictions, one of innovation and creative spirit, and one of conflict and challenge. Thanks to Wait’s work we have the opportunity to raise our glasses to these unheralded women and know that their legacies will live on. 

I was saddened to hear of the recent passing of Michael Broadbent at the age of 92. He was a true icon of the global industry, and his contributions to wine over the last 60-plus years cannot be measured.

Broadbent passed the Master of Wine examination in 1960 in London. He moved to Christie’s auction house in 1966 and launched their first fine wine auctions. He remained with Christie’s until 1992 and was a senior consultant with them until 2009. During his time at Christie’s, no one tasted more fine and rare wine, or wrote so eloquently about it than Broadbent. His books about tasting and rare wine have long been industry benchmarks. I can’t recall the number of times when a need for information or a tasting note for an older vintage of Madeira or Port would have me reaching for Vintage Wine or The New Great Vintage Wine Book.

Michael touched the lives of countless in the industry. No doubt many have stories about him and I look forward to reading them in the days and weeks to come. I had one unforgettable encounter with Mr. Broadbent. It went something like this.

In the fall of 2002, I was invited by good friend Joe Bilman to be part of a dinner honoring Broadbent and his son Bartholomew. Bilman owns Subterraneum, a wine storage facility in Oakland. I’d worked with Joe in the restaurant business in San Francisco previously and had been one of his first customers, storing my cellar with him early on. In time, many collectors in the Bay Area did likewise and Subterraneum flourished.

At this particular time, Michael Broadbent had just released his book, Vintage Wine, and was doing a tour of sorts through the U.S. Joe knew Bartholomew and was able to convince him to have Michael do a book signing at Subterraneum followed by a catered dinner for the Broadbents and a small group of collectors who were wine storage clients. I should also note that I knew Bartholomew. In my previous role as one of the buyers at Virtual Vineyards/the original wine.com, I got to know Bartholomew well and bought copious quantities of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese table wines from him.

Joe extended an invitation to the dinner with the caveat that I had to contribute a bottle worthy of the occasion; no easy task given the cellars of the other guests. In a pinch, I called Brent Wiest of Cellars International. Brent generously offered two half bottles of the 1983 JJ Prüm Wehlener Sonnenuhr Eiswein for a player to be named later. The bottles would be my contribution to the meal.

Meeting Michael Broadbent that afternoon was a moment. He couldn’t have been more gracious. He was appreciative of the fact that I owned all his books and had already purchased the new book, which he quickly signed for me. For the moment all was well. It couldn’t have better. And then in an instant, things changed.

While I was chatting with Michael, one of the collectors who would be joining for dinner ambled up and placed a bottle in my hands. He said something like, “Joe said you’d take care of this for me,” and then wandered off. Broadbent looked down at the bottle and exclaimed, “Oh, the 1876 Gruaud-Larose! How marvelous!” My head snapped down and sure enough, there in my hands was a bottle of 1876 Chateau Gruaud-Larose with the label in remarkably good shape. Broadbent immediately started talking about the 1876 vintage on the left bank in detail.
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During an appropriate lull in the conversation, I excused myself and went to find Joe. I showed him the bottle and he said to go ahead and decant it. Mind you, the bottle had just been taken directly out of a storage locker and could not be stood upright lest the sediment be disturbed and the wine immediately rendered undrinkable. I then asked Joe what kind of equipment he had on site. A Screwpull? Ah-so? Decanting cradle or basket? He answered negative to all the above. But he did have a decanter and a candle. The only thing I had was a $10 waiter’s friend corkscrew with a black plastic handle. If not familiar, a waiter’s friend is the kind of corkscrew used by untold thousands of servers, bartenders, and sommeliers, the world over. It is the easiest to use, most effective corkscrew there is. That said, it is the very LAST corkscrew on planet earth one would use to open a bottle over a century old. 

​I scoured the kitchen looking for anything that would help stabilize the bottle horizontally at the proper angle so I could gently remove the cork and then decant the wine without disturbing the sediment or creating an international incident. Absolutely nothing turned up. In the end, I grabbed a pile of folded cloth napkins from the catering company and found a quiet place off to the side and out of sight. I then fashioned a nest of sorts for the bottle and carefully placed it snugly like a newborn. Mind you, Michael had followed me and was watching with great curiosity--and probably wondering what kind of maroon would use a pile of napkins to secure such an old bottle for decanting. I didn’t have time to worry about appearances.

As I carefully positioned bottle, Michael told me that he had tasted the 1876 several times previously. Then, with his photographic memory, he began to tell me about each time he had tasted the wine; the place, the occasion, and how each bottle had showed. I, on the other hand, was trying to perform micro-surgery with a can opener. I lit the candle and set it out of the way. I then took the entire lead capsule off the neck of the bottle so I could see exactly what was happening with the cork when I started to remove it. Next, I wiped the top of the bottle clean making sure it was free of any mold. Taking a deep breath, I inserted the auger of the corkscrew into the top of the cork. I slowly twisted/inserted the auger of the corkscrew and then began the delicate task of removing the cork. All the while Michael continued with his detailed account of each of the bottles of the 1876. Truth be told, I tuned him out and was completely focused on the cork as it started to come out in minuscule increments. After an eternity the cork was completely out and miraculously in one piece. To be honest, I got lucky as the bottle must have been recorked at the chateau at some point during the 1950’s or ‘60’s.

​From there it was all routine. I removed the cork from the auger of the corkscrew and put it aside on one of the napkins. I wiped out the inside of the neck and the top of the bottle thoroughly. Then I slowly and gently decanted the wine into the decanter, viewing the candle through the shoulder of the bottle to be mindful of any sediment (surprisingly, in the end there was very little sediment at all). I placed the bottle and decanter down and finally looked up. Broadbent was smiling. He put his hand on my shoulder and said, “young man, that’s one of the best jobs of decanting I have ever seen.” I simply nodded and mumbled my thanks, somehow resisting the urge to come completely unglued. I then found the bottle’s owner and handed him the bottle and decanter.

The dinner, a multi-course affair, was a great success. James Grandison, a friend of Joe’s, did the cooking and it was superb. I was drafted to do all the wine service and was more than happy to oblige. The lineup of wines from the various collectors’ cellars was the stuff of legend: a magnum of 1982 Krug vintage to start, 1947 Chateau Haut-Brion Blanc, the infamous bottle of 1876 Chateau Gruaud-Larose, 1996 Chateau Palmer, 1961 Chateau Cheval Blanc, 1978 Henri Jayer Vosne Romanée Les Brulées, the 1983 JJ Prüm Eiswein, and a bottle of 1900 d’Oliveiras Moscatel to finish the evening off.

Throughout the meal, Michael was asked to provide commentary about each of the wines served and he did so brilliantly and graciously. Toward the end of the meal I served the Prüm Eiswein. After pouring, Broadbent took a sip, looked up at me, and said, “perfection.” And it was.

The following year Michael wrote about the dinner in his column in the May 2003 issue of Decanter. He described the evening and the wines in detail. Here are his thoughts on the two wines of note:

“The first of the reds was Gruaud-Larose of a scarcely ever seen pre-phylloxera vintage, 1876. It had been recorked at the chateau and almost certainly emanated from Cordier’s sale at Christie’s in 1976. Palish, with orange-tinged maturity; its fragrance was discernible despite the initial whiff of banana skins and final relapse; tart and creaking yet remarkably good for its age and vintage. One has to make allowances.”

“Happily, along came a JJ Prüm Wehlener Sonnenuhr Eiswein of a favourite Mosel vintage of mine, 1983. Orange amber-gold; a scent of apricots and refreshing whiff of tangerine; sweet of course, caramelly, raisiny, chocolatey. What Parker might call ‘decadent’ and what I shall merely regard as unashamedly appealing. Perhaps we mean the same thing.”

Michael closed the column with a wonderful remark:

“So this is how half a dozen collectors show and share their wines – with friends, and generous to a fault.”
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I think back to that night at Subterraneum, the dinner, and the brief time I was able to share with Michael. It is truly one of the highlights of my career—something I treasure. So Michael, here’s to you. Thank you for everything you did for our industry. It is beyond measure. You will be greatly missed. Cheers and Godspeed!