Structure in wine is important--really important. By structure I mean the levels of alcohol, acidity, phenolic bitterness (white wines), and tannin (red wines). Personally, I think a wine’s structure is its very bones. It also speaks to grape variety, place of origin, climate, timing of harvest, winemaking techniques, and so much more.

It’s no surprise that assessing structure accurately and consistently is a necessity for becoming a professional taster. It’s also key for being able to judge wine quality at any level. For the student, what’s necessary is to first be able to first separate the physical sensations of the different structural elements on the palate. Then over time, to be able to quickly and consistently assess structural levels and, later, connect the dots between structure and the overall character of the wine.

One such example is making the connection between high alcohol, restrained acidity (and possible acidulation), and ripe-raisinated fruit in a Barossa Shiraz. Or the high acidity, restrained alcohol and tart fruit in a Chianti Classico.  

Everything I’ve just described requires time and experience. But to get started, here are the structural elements defined, as well as some basic strategies to practice tasting for them.  

Alcohol

Definition:
Ethanol alcohol in wine is a product of fermentation. The alcohol level in table wines ranges between 5.5% to over 16%.

What does it smell like?
Alcohol in wine is odorless but perceived as heat on the nose. However, smelling jammy or raisinated fruit can and should create expectations for high alcohol on the palate of a wine.

What does it taste like?
Alcohol is tasteless, but as just mentioned, wines with high alcohol content have ripe, jammy fruit and lower natural acidity. Wines with less alcohol have higher natural acidity, less ripe fruit, and are tart on the palate.

What does it feel like?
Elevated alcohol can give wine a fuller body as well a richer texture on the palate. High alcohol can also give the illusion of sweetness on the palate.

How do I check for it?
After spitting the wine out, say the letter “O” and inhale (remember, AFTER spitting out the wine). Note the sensation of warmth or heat perceived in the bridge of the nose, the mouth, throat, and even chest cavity if the alcohol is high.

Connecting the dots:
High alcohol means that the grapes used to produce the wine were ripe or even over-ripe. Thus, a high alcohol wine will show ripe, jammy, or even raisinated fruit as well as lower natural acidity. Also, a high-alcohol wine will commonly be acidulated with tartaric acid.

Reference wines:
Low alcohol white wines: Moscato di Asti (semi-sparkling), Riesling (Mosel),
High alcohol white wines: New World Chardonnay, New World Viognier, Southern Rhône Marsanne blends

Acidity

Definition:
There are four primary acids found in grapes: tartaric, malic, lactic, and citric. Tartaric acid, by far, is the most important as gives both grapes and wine balance and potential to age. It decreases as grapes ripen. If lacking, it needs to be added to the must during fermentation or the wine before bottling. Powdered tartaric acid derived from grapes is the most common acid additive.

What does it smell like?
Acidity doesn’t smell like anything. However, smelling tart or under ripe fruit can and should create expectations for high acidity in a wine.

What does it taste like?
Easily said: Acidity tastes sour.

What does it feel like?
On the palate, acidity is sensed by increased saliva production and activity in the salivary glands. High acidity is also often felt in the front of the mouth on tongue, teeth, and gums.

How do I check for it? 
Pay close attention to your salivary glands and saliva production after spitting out the wine. If in doubt, take a sip of water and note the complete lack of acidity as compared to the wine.

Connecting the dots:
It all goes back to place. Cooler climate places produce high acid-lower alcohol wines because the grapes don’t completely ripen. Generally, cool climate wines often have less depth of color and offer more savory character when compared to wines made from grapes grown in warmer climates that have higher alcohol, riper fruit, and less natural acidity.
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Reference wines:
Lower acid wines: Gewurztraminer, Pinot Gris, Marsanne-Roussanne blends
High acid wines: Riesling, Melon, Chenin Blanc

Phenolic Bitterness

Definition:
For white wines only! Phenols are a large group of compounds found in grape skins and seeds. Note that tannins are part of the phenol family. In white wines, phenols are derived from the must being in contact with the skin before, during, or after fermentation. Phenolic bitterness is an important marker for many semi-aromatic and fully aromatic grapes.

What does it smell like?
Phenolic bitterness is odorless. However, smelling wines made from semi-aromatic and fully aromatic grapes with pronounced floral qualities can and should build expectations of phenolic bitterness on the palate.

What does it taste like?
As implied, phenolic bitterness taste bitter. It’s often described as “almond skin bitterness” on the finish of a wine.

What does it feel like?
In any quantity, phenolic bitterness feels astringent on the palate—especially on the finish of the wine.  

Note! It’s important for the student to be able to separate phenolic bitterness from used oak in white wines. The latter is usually accompanied by other aromas and flavors from oak aging.

How do I check for it?
The best way to experience phenolic bitterness is to taste a wine made from a fully-aromatic grape like Gewürztraminer. Take a sip and hold the wine on your palate for about 10 seconds before spitting it out. Better yet, take a small sip and swallow while paying close attention to the bitter taste and touch of grittiness on the finish of the wine.

Connecting the dots:
Perceiving phenolic bitterness on the palate signals a semi-aromatic or fully aromatic white grape which can be connected to the overt floral qualities stemming from terpenes. The two are often found together.

Reference wines:
Low phenolic bitterness wines: Chardonnay, Melon
High phenolic bitterness wines: Torrontés, Gewürztraminer, Viognier

Tannin

Definition:
For red wines only! Tannin, or tannic acid, is derived from grape skins or oak barrels in which red wine is often aged. Powdered tannin is also commonly added to red wine during various stages of the winemaking process.

What does it smell like?
Tannin is odorless. However, a deeply colored red wine with ripe fruit and aromas of oak aging should create expectations of elevated tannin.

What does it taste like?
In any quantity, tannin tastes bitter like overly brewed tea.

What does it feel like?
Tannin feels astringent and even gritty on the palate. It’s important to note the difference between grape and oak tannin in regards to their sensory “location” on the palate. It varies with the individual. For me, grape tannins are perceived in the front of the mouth and oak tannins in the back. It’s useful to be able to separate the two.

Reference wines:
Low tannin wines: Gamay, Pinot Noir
High tannin wines: Cabernet Sauvignon, Barolo, Aglianico

Working with Structure

Following are strategies for practicing tasting for structure. Gaining experience and accuracy in structural assessment again takes time and a lot of practice—just like everything else in tasting!

Get a Coravin: A Coravin is by far the most useful wine accessory there is for tasting practice. Using a Coravin will allow you to buy best examples of wines and to taste them repeatedly over a period of time, thereby saving you thousands of dollars on wine purchases.

Taste wines in pairs: Our brains learn easily with binary. Practice tasting wines in twos. Then do the following.

Calibrate structure using extremes: One of the easiest ways to learning consistent calibration of structural elements is by comparative tasting that uses extremes. Using a Coravin, here are suggested pairs of wines that show extremes in structure. Taste for one structural element at a time. And remember—only two wines at a time!

• Alcohol - low vs. high: Mosel Riesling vs. high alcohol Napa Valley Chardonnay
• Acidity - low vs. high: Alsace Gewurztraminer vs. Clare Valley Riesling
• Phenolic bitterness - low vs. high: Chablis AC vs. Alsace Gewurztraminer
• Tannin - low vs. high: Beaujolais Villages vs. Barolo

​Cause & Effect: Memorize the cause and effect behind each criteria of the tasting grid, especially in regards to fruit quality and ripeness levels as they relate to structural levels. Connect the dots from color to fruit ripeness to acid and alcohol.

Write personal grape variety descriptions: There are several sources of grape variety descriptions, including this blog. That said, I highly recommend writing your own as there will doubtless be markers for various grape varieties that are unique to you. Make sure to include structural levels in your descriptions. 
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Cheers!

One of my core beliefs about wine is that it’s the great connector--it connects us to each other in ways that no other thing, substance, or small household appliance does. That for thousands of years, since the time primitive man first started decanting wine for aeration purposes, we humans have shared meals with members of our clan. Nothing could be truer in my life. 

I grew up in a household with six kids in the 1960’s. Dinner time could only be described as barely controlled chaos. With four boys swimming in a morass of testosterone it was not uncommon to have a dinner roll ka-tonked off the side of your head when you requested bread from the other end of the table. Asking for butter (which was actually margarine, of course), was likewise completely risky business.

In short, dinner was a Darwinian affair requiring cunning and dexterity. Any and everything was passed around the table only once. If you didn’t get enough on the first shot, you weren’t getting more. A gallon of milk barely made it around the table. The oldest three of us quickly figured out that the only way to get more was to pour your glass full, drink half of it, then refill before passing it on, causing an immediate firestorm of protest from my younger brothers and sister. It was also imperative that you quickly identify and skewer the biggest-ass pork chop/ham slice/slice of meatloaf on the platter when it came your way because it was your one and only shot at sustenance for the evening.
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When my school mates joined for dinner, they were always a bit shaken by the carnal frenzy that defined our family meals. They soon learned to adapt or went home hungry. It’s also worth noting that my then future brother-in-law did not return to our house for over six months after his first Easter dinner at the Gaiser table. Enough said.

Eventually, with the patience of a saint and the aid of blunt instruments, my Mom managed to instill some semblance of table manners in the six of us. That in itself is a minor miracle. Beyond that, she also managed in a very sly way to instill the dining ritual in us as a family, and not because she and my Dad were raised in the European tradition of fine dining with candle lit extravaganzas and lengthy erudite conversations. That was as remote as the Dog Star. Instead, it was the mere act of gathering the entire herd once a day so we could sit down and have dinner. That even if all hell had broken loose during the previous 12 hours—and it often did--we had the certainty of knowing that we as a family would share a meal. 

​Years later when Carla and I first moved to the city and were both bartending, the dining ritual continued. On our rare nights off together, we either went out or stayed in and cooked dinner for one another. Explorations into the Byzantine menus of the now sadly long-gone Gourmet magazine often ensued with the kitchen getting completely trashed and us limping to the dinner table like stunned livestock after vigorous and sometimes pyrotechnic experiments in the kitchen.

The dining ritual continued unabated after our lives went from “man on man” to “zone” in terms of having kids. Looking back on those years, I’ve come to believe that one of the greatest things Carla and I have given our kids is the many years of the dining ritual. When it was dinnertime life came to a screeching halt. Once dinner was plated and hit the table, everyone gathered regardless of whatever else on the planet was going on. Maria, now out of grad school and working for the School of Public Health at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, has told me many times that the thing she misses most about home life is sharing dinner, especially the hours of hanging out at the table after dinner was over finishing a bottle of wine and chatting about everything under the sun.

Does the dining ritual guarantee a happy family or a long relationship-marriage? Not necessarily but it’s a primo opportunity to spend time with your partner and family. And that’s not a bad thing. It’s worked for Carla and me for over 40 years. It might just work for you. Finally, I think that the dining ritual is especially important now with the pandemic. Sheltering in place means we need connection and community more than ever. Sharing a meal and a bottle of wine is not only sustenance--it’s a much-needed balm for the soul. I hope everyone reading this missive is able to do just that on a regular basis.

Cheers—and stay safe! 

"Baseball is 90% mental. The other half is physical."

Yogi Berra

In deductive tasting, the sensory evaluation sequence when one gathers as information about a wine’s appearance, aroma, and palate is only part of the equation. What’s equally important, arguably even more important, is to be able to put all the information together in a meaningful way to come up with a logical conclusion. To point, many times I’ve sat across a table from a student listening to them describe a wine in detail only to, in the words of the all-knowing Bugs Bunny, take a left turn at Albuquerque with a conclusion that makes absolutely no sense. It’s as if the student either didn’t listen to themself while describing the wine or they couldn’t connect the dots and come up with a grape and region that matches the information found in the glass.

Enter the decision matrix. The matrix is a series of mini if-then evaluations that a taster can use when examining a wine to help to come up with a good conclusion. For example, looking at a glass of red wine that’s lighter in color can quickly build expectations of a thinner-skinned grape variety grown in a cooler climate with red fruit dominating nose and palate as well as the finished wine having less alcohol, higher natural acidity, and moderate tannins. You get the idea. 

While there are exceptions to all the so-called rules below, the matrix will provide a foundation for you to build on. Remember that there is no replacement for knowing key markers for classic grapes and wines. Mastery of these is absolutely required to become an experienced taster. Finally, the matrix is intended as a starting point for anyone to use and then to go on and develop their own personal version. With that, read on, explore, and enjoy.

Sight

Color: White Wines

• Light or pale color:
  • Youth
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Reductive winemaking
  • Lack of new oak aging

 

• Deep yellow or gold color:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Overall age
  • Extended new oak aging
  • Botrytis-affected fruit
  • Extended skin contact

 

• Green secondary color:
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Youth

 
Color: Red Wines

• Lighter color:
  • Thinner-skinned grape
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Red fruit dominant wine
  • Less overall ripeness of fruit
  • Higher natural acidity
  • Lower alcohol

 

• Garnet color:
  • Overall age and degree of oxidation
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Extended oak aging

 

• Deeper color:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Dark fruit dominant wine
  • Riper fruit qualities
  • Lower natural acidity (possible acidulation)
  • Higher alcohol
  • Possible higher tannin

 
Rim variation

• Pink or purple color:
  • Youth
  • Lack of extended new oak aging

 

• Salmon – orange – yellow – brown:
  • Overall level of oxidation
  • Oxidative winemaking
  • Extended oak aging
  • Oxidative grape variety

 

• Legs/tearing
  • Quickly forming, thinner, and quickly moving tears/legs =
  • Cooler climate
  • Cooler vintage
  • Lower alcohol
  • Lower dry extract
  • Higher natural acidity
  • Lack of residual sugar

 

• Slower forming, thicker, and slower moving tears/legs:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • Higher alcohol
  • Lower acidity (possible acidulation)
  • Higher dry extract
  • Possible presence of residual sugar
  • Possible fortification

 

• Staining of the tears in red wine:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Concentrated wine
  • Possible warmer climate
  • Higher dry extract

Nose

Faults/wine hygiene

• Brettanomyces
  • Possible Old World growing region
  • High pH wine from warmer growing region
  • Minimal winemaking

 

• Volatile acidity:
  • Possible Old World growing region
  • Minimal winemaking
  
  

Fruit

• Fruit-dominant:
  • New World region
  • New World style

 

• Lack of overt fruit:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

 

• Fresh, vibrant fruit:
  • Youth
  • Lack of oak influence

 

• Dried or preserved fruit:
  • Wine with age

 

• Abundance of riper fruit:
  • Warmer region
  • Warmer vintage

 

• Abundance of tart and otherwise unripe fruit:
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage

 
Red wine

• Abundance of tart or under ripe red fruits:
  • Thinner-skinned grape
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage
  
  
• Abundance of darker riper fruit:
  • Thicker-skinned grape
  • Warmer growing region
  • Warmer vintage

​Non-fruit characteristics

• Dominant floral notes:
  • Aromatic grape (Gewürztraminer, Muscat, Viognier, etc.)

 

• Herbal-vegetal notes (pyrazines):
  • Cabernet Sauvignon family grape including Sauvignon Blanc

 

• Pepper (rotundone):
  • Rhone grape variety (Syrah, Grenache, Mourvèdre), Zinfandel, and Grüner Veltliner for white

Earth-mineral qualities

• Pronounced earth and mineral qualities:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

 

• Lack of overt earth and mineral qualities:
  • New World region
  • New World style

Oak

• Dominant oak usage:
  • New World region
  • New World style

 

• Used or neutral oak character:
  • Old World region
  • Old World style

Palate: Structure
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Acidity

• Higher natural acidity:
  • Cooler climate region
  • Cooler vintage

 

• Lower natural acidity:
  • Warmer climate region
  • Warmer vintage

 

• Acidulation/acidification:
  • Warmer climate
  • Warmer vintage
  • New World region
  • New World style

Alcohol

• Lower alcohol:
  • Cooler growing region
  • Cooler vintage
  • Possible Old World region or style

 

• Higher alcohol:
  • Warmer growing region
  • Warmer vintage
  • Possible New World region or style

Phenolic bitterness (white wine)

• Little or no phenolic bitterness:
  • Non-aromatic grape variety

 

• Medium or higher phenolic bitterness:
  • Semi-aromatic or fully aromatic grape variety

Tannin (red wine)

• Lower tannin:
  • Thinner-skinned grape variety
  • Less new oak usage
  • Possible cooler climate region

 

• Higher tannin:
  • Thicker-skinner grape variety
  • More new oak usage
  • Possible warmer climate region

Finish

• Shorter finish:
  • Lesser quality wine
  • Less complex wine

 

• Longer finish:
  • Better quality wine
  • More complex wine

Conclusion
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• Old World or Old World style wine:
  • Less overt fruit qualities
  • More earth and mineral qualities
  • High natural acidity from cooler growing region
  • Lower alcohol from cooler growing region
  • Less new oak usage
  • Less winemaking influence

 

• New World or New World style wine:
  • More overt fruit qualities
  • Less earth and mineral qualities
  • Lower natural acidity from warmer growing region
  • Possible acidulation because of warmer growing region
  • Higher alcohol from warmer growing region
  • More new oak usage
  • More winemaking influence

I originally published this post almost five years ago. Since then I’ve come to believe that the concept of “cause and effect” is one of the very cornerstones in the process of becoming a good professional taster. For the record, the others are impact compounds and accurate/consistent assessment of structural elements. With that in mind, here is an updated version of my post from September of 2015. Hope you enjoy it.

Cause and Effect: The “Why” Behind Deductive Tasting

Anyone who’s had the pleasure of entertaining a three-year-old for any length of time knows the exquisite torture they can inflict by asking an endless series of “why” questions. One’s patience can only be tested so long before the inevitable and curt, “because I said so” puts an end to it. Beyond random acts of parenting, “why” questions have always seemed problematic to me because they potentially create endless loop communication. Why? Because at some point there may not be a reason why!

However, why questions are valuable in the context of deductive tasting. They speak to cause and effect in terms of why a wine looks, smells, and tastes the way it does. These cause and effect relationships are both useful and valuable for the student learning about classic grapes and wines in their tasting practice. Here are potential cause-effect relationships for all the criteria in the deductive tasting grid.

Sight

Sight is the most overlooked aspect of tasting. I realize this may seem like an irritating pun, but it’s all too true as far as cause and effect is concerned. With experience, a quick look at a glass of wine—especially red wine—can and should build multiple expectations on the part of the taster in regards to the possible grape variety, fruit profile, structural elements, and the use of oak. Here is the “sight” portion of the deductive grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Clarity: Is a result of fining and filtration during the latter stages of the winemaking process. The clarity scale ranges from a cloudy wine that’s completely unfined and unfiltered to a crystal clear wine that’s put through considerable fining and filtration—and everything in between.

Brightness: Brightness in wine—especially in white wines—is a function of clarity, which is a direct result of the degree of fining and filtration. The brightness level in a red wine is also determined by the depth of pigmentation in various grape varieties.  Thinner-skinned, lighter-pigmented grapes such as Pinot Noir and Gamay will reflect far more light than Syrah or Cabernet Sauvignon.

Intensity of color: In white wines, the intensity of color can be the result of the climate of origin (fruit ripeness level) as well as the age or level of oxidation in the wine due to use of oak or time in bottle. Botrytis-affected fruit or extended skin contact can also play a role in a deeper-colored white wine. With red wines, intensity of color is largely due to the depth of pigmentation in a specific variety and likewise the age and oxidation of the given wine.

Primary color: The base color of a white wine—be it straw, yellow, gold, or brown—is largely determined by the degree of oxidation during winemaking or the time spent in barrel or bottle. Skin contact and the presence of botrytis can also contribute to a deeper color. The primary color in red wine—purple, ruby (red) or garnet (reddish brown) --is again determined by the depth of pigmentation of the specific grape (Pinot Noir vs. Syrah), age, or level of oxidation.

Secondary colors: In white wines the color green can signify either youth and/or a wine produced from grapes grown in a cooler climate. The colors platinum, silver, and unpolished brass often accompany the color green in a young white wine. In red wines secondary colors usually refer to rim variation (see below).

Rim variation: Is a term used to denote the color differentiation between wine in the center/core of the glass and wine at the edge/rim. The cause has to do with the amount of pigmentation in the specific grape, climate of origin, the ripeness level of fruit at harvest, and age of the wine. Generally, the older the wine, the more rim variation and the more evolved the color at the edge/rim of the glass. It’s important to note that rim variation is not significant for white wines.

Sediment: Sediment in a glass of red wine is due to either age (pigments and tannins precipitating out of solution) or non-filtration in the case of a younger wine. Tartrates, or tartaric acid crystals, in either white or red wine are the result of the wine not having been cold stabilized or having been minimally fined and filtered. 

Gas: Bubbles in a glass of wine can be a product of primary fermentation, malolactic fermentation/conversion, or from CO2 added to the wine as a preservative at the time of bottling.

Tears/legs: While often debated and certainly not exact science, the tears/legs in a glass of wine are a first indication of the possible level of alcohol or the presence of residual sugar. Thin, quickly moving tears often show a lower alcohol level and/or the lack of residual sugar in a wine. By contrast, thick, slowly moving tears are commonly associated with higher levels of alcohol and the possible presence of residual sugar.
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Staining of the tears: In red wine, staining of the tears is a result of the depth of pigmentation in the specific grape as well as elevated levels of dry extract in the wine (dissolved solids in solution). Dry extract is further related to lower yields, age of vines, and the degree of fining/filtration used during winemaking. 

Nose

The aroma of a wine is derived from a myriad of influences, including the specific grape variety, climate of origin, harvest timing, and any number of winemaking practices. Here is the “nose” portion of the grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Fault factor: Does the wine smell clean and well-made or does it contain one or more common wine faults? These include TCA (from faulty corks or contaminated tanks or barrels), high VA (Volatile Acidity from a problematic fermentation), Brettanomyces (barrel or winery hygiene issues), sulfur aromas such as H2S or mercaptan (fermentation issues), or excess SO2 added at the time of bottling.  

Intensity of aroma: The overall intensity of aroma can be related to the specific grape variety, the climate of origin (ripeness levels), structural elements (high alcohol), and winemaking influence in the form of malolactic fermentation, oak usage, and more.

Age: Indicators of age in a wine are due to oxidative winemaking (extensive racking, not topping up, etc.), extended wood-aging, or time in bottle.

Primary and secondary fruit: Specific kinds of fruit smelled in wine are derived from esters and other aromatic compounds that result from fermentation. The condition of the grape (i.e., botrytis) at harvest can also play a part.

Quality of fruit: The quality of the fruit, be it tart, ripe, or jammy, is the result of the climate of origin, specific harvest year (warm vintage etc.), harvest timing (late harvest, passito etc.), and the overall age/oxidation of the wine.

Non-fruit: Is derived from certain compounds found in grapes, the condition of the grapes (botrytis) at harvest, fermentation, or from the winemaking techniques (ML, lees contact, etc.).

Inorganic earth: While it continues to be a subject of debate in some circles, recent science has shown how the relationship between the microbiome and yeast population in vineyard soils affect fermentation resulting in compounds in the finished wine that are perceived as—and called--“earth and mineral.”

Organic earth: Same as above. The presence of Brettanomyces and/or Dekkora in a wine derived from the vineyard soil or the winery environment should also be considered as a possible cause of earthiness.
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Wood: The use of oak during fermentation and aging can lend a wide range of aromas to wine, including vanilla (vanillin) brown spices, coffee, tea, chocolate, toast, smoke, dill and more. The age, size, and type of barrel all play an important role in the intensity of oak influence. 

Palate

Oddly enough, actually tasting a wine in the context of the deductive process only has two purposes: to confirm what has already been smelled and to determine the level of structural elements, including acid, alcohol, tannin, and phenolic bitterness. Here is the “palate” grid broken down into cause and effect elements.

Sweetness/dryness: Wine is fermented completely dry or can contain a varying amount of residual sugar due to the fermentation having been stopped. The latter is accomplished by a number of winemaking practices, including sterile filtration, the addition of SO2, or fortification.

Body: In wine is determined by a number of factors, including the level of alcohol/glycerin in the wine (due to the degree of fruit ripeness at harvest) and the level of dry extract (particulate matter in solution). Dry extract levels are further determined by the quality of fruit and the degree of fining and filtration the wine undergoes before bottling. High levels of residual sugar can also lend a fuller body to a wine.

Fruit: Specific kinds of fruit smelled in wine are derived from esters and other aromatic compounds naturally found in grapes, as well as the result of fermentation. The condition of the grapes at harvest (botrytis) can also play a part.

Quality of fruit: Often changes from nose to palate and is again determined by the ripeness level of fruit at harvest, the specific harvest year (warm vintage etc.), harvest timing (late harvest, passito etc.), and the overall age or oxidation of the wine.

Inorganic/organic earth: As described above, earth and mineral aromas and flavors in wine are the result of how the microbiome and yeast population in vineyard soil affect fermentation and ultimately chemical compounds in the finished wine. The possibility of Brett as a factor for earthiness must again be considered.

Oak: Flavors from the use of oak during fermentation and/or aging.

Alcohol: The alcohol level is a product of the ripeness of fruit at harvest or other means used to either increase grape sugar (chaptalization) prior to fermentation. Methods such as adding water to the must (or wine), cross-flow filtration, and reverse osmosis can be used to decrease alcohol in the finished wine.

Acidity: The acidity level is a result of the ripeness of fruit/level at harvest or the addition of tartaric acid to the must or finished wine before bottling.

Tannin: Is derived from grape skins through pre-fermentation maceration, during fermentation, and post-fermentation maceration. It can be increased by the addition of press wine. Cooperage also plays an important role in the level of tannin in a wine in regards to the duration of time wine is kept in barrel, the size and type of cask, and the percentage of new vs. used oak used. Finally, powdered tannin is also commonly added at several different stages during the fermentation and aging of red wine.

Phenolic bitterness: Bitter phenolic compounds in white wines are developed when the must is in contact with grape skins before, during, or after fermentation. 

Finish: The length and quality of the finish is determined by the quality of the fruit, the intensity and level of structural elements (alcohol, acidity, tannin, and phenolic bitterness), and winemaking practices such as ML, lees contact, the use of oak, and more.
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Complexity: Although arguably the most subjective aspect the deductive grid and process, the degree of complexity is determined by a combination of fruit and vineyard quality, quality of the vintage/harvest, and winemaker's skill--or lack thereof.

Conclusion

After collecting all the “evidence” seen, smelled, and tasted in a wine, the conclusion is based on previous memory and experience. Here cause and effect still play a vital role in deductive thinking in terms of determining Old vs. New World style, grape variety, origin of the wine, level of quality, and the vintage. Here is the “conclusion” grid—both initial and final-- broken down into cause and effect elements.

Initial Conclusion

Old World Style vs. New World Style: Is primarily influenced by the specific location of the vineyard, be it in Europe or a New World country such as Australia. Winemaking techniques, such as blending different appellations and/or grape varieties, high alcohol, excessive oak, and considerable filtration can also play a part in influencing or obscuring style.

Climate: The specific location of the vineyard (cool vs. warm climate) and given conditions of a certain growing year (warmer vintage).

Grape variety: Assessing the possible grape variety involves using common markers for classic grapes including compounds such pyrazines (Cabernet family grapes including Sauvignon Blanc), rotundone (Syrah and Grüner Veltliner), and more.

General age: Determined by the overall degree of oxidation (or lack of) perceived in the wine.

Final Conclusion

Grape variety(s): Taken from common markers and factors perceived in the wine.

Country, region, appellation (if applicable): The specific origin of the wine.

Quality level: Balance and typicity of the wine as well as the origin and respective laws if applicable.

Vintage: The quality of the wine as related to specific vintage character and attributes (ripeness, structural elements).

Final thoughts

As with learning deductive tasting, getting familiar with the concept of cause and effect and how it applies to the deductive grid is something that takes time and a good deal of practice. I recommend “chunking” it down into groups of three-to-five bits so it can more easily be learned and used. I also recommend cornering a friend or family member and, with glass of wine in hand, explain cause and effect to them. If you can do that, you absolutely know it and will never forget it.

Cheers!

*A note about the art work in this post. Painter and photographer Diana LoMeiHing was born in Hong Kong and moved to Italy at the age of ten. In 1978 she graduated with honors in painting at the Brera Academy of Fine Arts in Milan. She has exhibited in solo and collective exhibitions in galleries in Italy and internationally since 1979. 

Perhaps the most often asked question is about the meaning of life. The answer is, of course, 42. Sorry, inside joke. The second most often asked question is what happens to wine as it ages. That question has a far more problematic answer because scientists don’t fully know what happens to wine as it ages in the bottle. And what they do know they can’t even agree on. Exhibit “A,” a quote from the chapter on Oxidation from Jamie Goode’s latest book Flawless: Understanding Common Wine Faults:

“I would add, that the exact mechanisms of chemical oxidation of wine are still not completely understood, and there are multiple theories to explain the chemistry at this point. This is a somewhat controversial field.”

Wine as a living thing is never static in the bottle. The alcohol and acids react together constantly to form new compounds while other compounds dissolve. These changes happen over time and at different rates. No surprise that every time a bottle is opened the wine inside is at a different stage in its evolution.

There are no hard or fast answers to the wine aging question. However, we in the industry need to be able to understand the general changes that tend to take place in wine as it ages in regards to the way it looks, smells, tastes, and even feels on the palate. Further, we need to able to communicate these changes to our customers/clients/guests in such a way as to be easily understandable and avoid putting them into a deep trance.

This post is an attempt to do just that. For the consumer, this post will provide some information about what tends to happen in wine as it ages. Notice the emphasis on the word tends. For the sommelier or other industry professional, I’ve included some suggested language to use when describing an older wine to a guest or consumer so as not to confuse or intimidate. Finally, I've included some FAQ's on wine and aging. Onward. 

How Wine Tends to Change with Age
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Color

Most reading this post will already know that white and blush wines grow darker in color as they age, while red wines do the opposite—they get lighter in color because pigments and tannin precipitate out of solution. Over time the color in wine will change to show oxidation in various ways, and the color intensity will usually diminish as well. The following changes in color generally apply.

White wines: Straw and pale-yellow color in a young wine vs. deeper yellow, gold, and even amber in an older wine.

Pink wines: Various shades of pink in a young rosé vs. salmon and orange in an older wine.

Red wines: Vibrant ruby or purple in a young wine vs. various shades of garnet or garnet-brown in an older wine.

Aromas and Flavors

Fruit: Generally, young wine offers more overt primary fruit aromas and flavors vs. an aged wine. After a time, wine will also show less primary fruit with secondary (even tertiary) non-fruit and earth-mineral aromas and tending to dominate. It’s also fairly easy to recognize two or more distinct kinds of fruit in a young wine but difficult in an older wine where the fruit has melded together.

Fruit quality: Fresh, vibrant fruit in a young wine vs. dried, stewed, compoted, or raisinated fruit in an older wine.

Non-fruit floral: Fresh flowers and blossoms in a young wine vs. dried flowers, pressed flowers, or potpourri in an older wine.

Non-fruit herbal: Fresh green herbs in a young wine vs. dried herbs in an older wine.

Non-fruit spice (either pepper-spice or oak spice): Fresh spices in a young wine vs. dried spices in an older wine.

Earth-mineral: Wines with age show more pronounced earth and mineral character simply because the decreased intensity of fruit and non-fruit elements.

Oak: Overt vanilla and spice character in a young wine with new oak vs. dried, less distinct spice in an older wine. Also, less overall overt oak presence.

Important! Note the pattern here. Over time practically everything in a wine regarding aroma and flavor goes from fresh to dry. Thus it doesn't make sense to describe a wine as having dried fruit and fresh herb notes. An aged wine will show dried fruit, dried herb notes, and less overt oak if any was used in the winemaking process.

Structure

How does our perception of the structural element in wine change as it ages? What are the reasons for the change vs. the wine simply smelling and tasting different? The answer involves a myriad of factors.

Residual sugar: The level of measurable residual sugar in wine does not change with age. However, over time certain molecules and aldehydes form new combinations that can change our perception of sweetness, making an older wine tastes drier.

Acidity: Once bottled, the level of acidity in a wine remains almost constant with age. However, our perception of acidity in a wine changes over time for various reasons. In white wine with residual sugar, the level of acidity can seem higher after considerable aging because our perception of the level of sweetness is less. Likewise, a high acid red wine seems more acidic with age because there’s less overall fruit.  

Alcohol: After fermentation the alcohol level in a wine remains the same. However, as phenolic compounds link together and the wine’s primary flavors fade with age, there may be times during a wine’s development when the alcohol will seem more or less pronounced.
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Tannin: Tannins found in grape skins and seeds taste bitter and feel astringent on the palate. Over time, tannins soften because they polymerize, or form long chains with each other. The tannin polymer molecules taste less bitter and feel less harsh compared to those in a younger wine. Also, some of the tannins will precipitate out of the wine as sediment with age making it smoother--for lack of a better term--on the palate. 

More on Them Changes

Given all the above, here are examples of certain wines and how they tend to change over time. As previously noted, all are general tendencies.

Vintage Champagne

Young Wine

Sight: Pale straw color with hints of green and a persistent bead (bubbles).
Nose and Palate: Tart vibrant apple-pear and citrus fruit, floral, autolytic notes (from the breakdown of yeast left from secondary fermentation) of yeast, toast, brioche, and possible earth-mineral notes.

Aged Wine

Sight: Brassy straw in color and less persistent bead.
Nose and Palate: Dried orchard and citrus fruit, dried floral, more pronounced toasty autolytic character, and more pronounced earth-mushroom-mineral character.

Riesling - Mosel Spätlese

Young Wine
Sight: Pale straw color with green.
Nose and Palate: A myriad of fresh vibrant fruit including green apple, stone fruit, tropical fruit, and sweet/tart citrus fruit. Also, fresh citrus blossom, possible lees character (yeast); slate mineral, and little, if any, TDN/petrol character.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow gold in color with hints of green.
Nose and Palate: Less fruit overall and the fruit quality is dried/preserved. Also, dried floral, crystalized honey, more pronounced slate mineral quality, and more TDN/petrol character.

Chardonnay - California

Young Wine
Sight: Light yellow in color with hint of green.
Nose and Palate: Fresh and ripe apple-pear, tropical, and citrus fruit with lees notes (yeast, bread dough, etc.), butter from malolactic fermentation/conversion, and pronounced vanilla-spice notes from new oak usage.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow-gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, or compoted fruit including apple-pear and citrus with less distinct lees, butterscotch, and spice character from oak influence. Also, oxidative notes such as honey and roasted nuts.

Chardonnay – Cote de Beaune

Young Wine
Sight: Straw-yellow in color with green.
Nose and Palate: Fresh and ripe apple-pear and citrus fruit with lees (yeast, bread dough, etc.), butter from malolactic fermentation/conversion, possible matchstick-mercaptan-SO2 notes, mineral-earth notes, and vanilla spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Yellow-gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, or compoted fruit including apple and preserved citrus with less distinct lees, butterscotch, more pronounced mineral-mushroom-earth notes, and any matchstick-SO2 integrated into the wine. Also, less overt oak influence but with honey and roasted nut oxidative notes.

Pinot Noir – New World

Young Wine
Sight: Medium ruby color with pink hue.
Nose and Palate: Bright, fresh red fruit (red cherry, cranberry, and strawberry) with fresh rose floral, green herb, and oak spices.

Aged Wine
Sight: Garnet-ruby in color with secondary lighter garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried-compoted red fruit, dried floral and herb, possible tertiary mineral and earth notes, and less spice from oak.

Pinot Noir – Red Burgundy

Young Wine
Sight: Medium ruby color with pink hue.
Nose and Palate: Bright, fresh red fruit (red cherry, cranberry, and strawberry) with rose floral, green herb/tea, possible green stemmy notes, mineral-earth, and vanilla-spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Garnet-ruby in color with secondary lighter garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried, desiccated red fruit with dried floral, herb, tea, stems, and pronounced mineral-earth notes including game, truffle, and mushroom. Also, less spice and overt oak influence. Note that a fine aged red Burgundy often displays complexities on the nose and palate that are almost impossible to describe.

Syrah – Barossa Shiraz

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe, jammy black fruit (blackberry, cherry, and plum), tart red fruit (cherry and cranberry), and dried fruit (raisin, prune, date, and fig). Also, black pepper spice, savory herb, mint and eucalyptus, savory notes (soy and beef jerky), and pronounced vanilla-spice from new oak.

Aged Wine:
Sight: Deep purple with garnet hue.
Nose and Palate: Dried raisinated character overall with riper and tarter elements. Also, dried pepper, leather, mint, herbs, dried savory spice and meat, and less pronounced oak.

Syrah – Northern Rhone

Young Wine
Sight: Deep purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe and tart black fruit (blackberry, cherry, and plum), tart red fruit (cherry and cranberry), and dried fruit (date and fig). Also black and/or white pepper spice, fresh floral, green herb, savory notes (soy, jerky, iodine, and blood), mineral-earth, and oak notes including smoke, toast, and spice.

Aged Wine
Sight: Faded purple-garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried raisinated fruit character overall with riper and tarter notes. Also, dried pepper, dried floral and herbs, dried savory spice, savory meaty character, pronounced mineral-earth-mushroom, and less overt oak notes. Like aged red Burgundy, a top-quality Syrah from Cornas, Hermitage, or Cote Rotie can show remarkable complexity over time that defies description.

Cabernet Sauvignon – California

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby purple in color.
Nose and Palate: Ripe, jammy, and concentrated black fruit and raisinated fruit with violet floral, green herb, and pronounced new oak notes including vanilla, spices, toast, and more.

Aged Wine
Sight: Deep ruby garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried black and raisinated fruit with dried floral, dried herb, cedar, graphite, and less oak influence.

Cabernet Sauvignon Blend - Bordeaux

Young Wine
Sight: Opaque ruby in color.
Nose and Palate: Concentrated, vibrant black fruit (cherry, berry, currant, and plum) and tart red fruit (cherry and currant) with violet floral, green herb-vegetal, mineral-earth notes, and vanilla-spice from oak.

Aged Wine
Sight: Deep ruby garnet in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, stewed, and compoted black and red fruit with dried floral, dried herb-vegetal, more pronounced mushroom-earth-mineral, and less spice and oak influence.

Botrytis Sweet Semillon Blend - Bordeaux

Young Wine
Sight: Deep straw-yellow in color.
Nose and Palate: Candied ripe stone fruit (peach, apricot, and nectarine), sweet citrus (orange, Mandarin, and tangerine) with honeysuckle floral, honey, mineral-earth, and pronounced new oak character with vanilla and spice.
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Aged Wine
Sight: Deep burnished gold in color.
Nose and Palate: Dried, crystalized stone fruit and preserved sweet citrus fruit and citrus peel with dried floral and pronounced botrytis notes including dried honey, saffron, and marmalade. Also, pronounced mushroom and dark earth character with less overt oak spice notes.

Talking Them Changes

Describing wine is never easy. There’s no inherent vocabulary for it and we in the industry have long been guilty of shamelessly pilfering terms from other unrelated fields. There’s also the curious inverse ratio of experience vs. subjectivity as in, the more experience with tasting, the less subjective wine is. Thus to a beginner the wine experience is almost completely subjective, while to someone with years or even decades of experience tasting is almost completely objective. This makes describing an older wine to a curious novice challenging at best. Language really matters when it comes describing an older bottle. Here are some suggested dos and don’ts for speaking the language of an older wine, as well as a couple terms that usually need explaining.

Descriptors to use: dried, jammy, candied, preserved, and savory. Also--and these may require explanation--integrated, married, and melded.

Descriptors to avoid: oxidized, faded, musty, dank, dying, and generally anything that can easily be associated with “old.”  

Terms that need explanation:

Bottle bouquet: the aromas of a wine with age as in all the above.

Vinous: the qualities of a red wine with age as in dried fruit, dried herbs and spices, leather, earth, and integrated oak.

Wine Aging FAQ’s

Over the years I’ve been asked many questions about wine and aging. Here are some of the most common ones and my answers.

Does old wine taste better than young wine?
The answer depends completely on you. If you’re familiar with the character of an aged wine, then odds are you’ll like the subtlety and complexity notes of an older bottle. If that’s not the case then you will probably be put off by the dried and earthy notes in an older wine.

What does old wine taste like?
See above: lots of notes on older wines and how they differ from younger vintages.

Does aroma decrease with age?
The answer is generally no. However, the intensity of aroma in certain wines may seem perceptibly less because the aromatics have evolved to such a great extent. 
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Anything to know about pairing an older wine with food? 
Good question! The overt primary flavors of a young wine can handle much more intensity in a dish such as using garlic or onions, or cooking techniques such as grilling. Not so with an older wine. Subtlety in the dish and letting the wine take center stage are the keys. A strongly flavored dish can bury the complex flavors of an older wine. Be mindful of balance!

Is an old wine worth the extra cost?
The answer again depends on you. Older wine will always make it more expensive because someone had to initially buy it and then store it. If you like older wine and have the disposable income, the extra cost may be worth it.

Should I order old wine in a restaurant?
If a celebratory occasion calls for it, by all means yes—but with a caveat. The restaurant in question must have a good wine program with a well-established cellar and a dedicated buyer/sommelier. If you are going to spend the big bucks for an older bottle in a restaurant it’s not unreasonable to ask how the bottle was acquired, how long the restaurant has owned it, and how it’s been stored. All are reasonable questions that any sommelier/buyer should be able to answer.

Do all wines age?
Yes, all wines age--as in, eventually becoming oxidized and ultimately vinegar. However, some wines take far more time than others to go through the aging process. Most go through the evolution quickly within a year or two. 

What wines age best?
Top quality sweet wines, fortified sweet wines, and certain red wines tend to age the best and/or longest.

Are aged wines better than un-aged wines?
Context is important here. Who is to say that a bottle of just-released Prosecco enjoyed with the woman/man of your dreams during a beautiful sunset isn’t every bit as amazing and memorable as an uber expensive bottle of 20-year-old Chateau Latour enjoyed in some formal dining room? Note the difference here between a great wine experience vs. a great wine. Both are relevant.

What are the best conditions to age wine?
Great question--and a very important one as well. Proper conditions for cellaring wine are a constant temperature of between 55-60 degrees with a minimum of 60% humidity, and no source of light or vibration. A constant, cool temperature and darkness are key.

When should I drink my bottle?
This is a short question with a very long answer. As the wise Inigo Montoya once said, “Too long. Let me sum up.” The following variables come into play:

1. Wine type: What kind of wine is it? Something just purchased at Albertson’s with a plastic cork that’s meant to be opened and enjoyed now and over the next several months? Or a quality bottle that has the capability to age? The price you paid for the bottle will also be an important clue. Less money equals a wine that’s intended to be enjoyed near term and not aged.
2. Storage conditions: If you don’t have a place with the right conditions to store wine long term all bets are off. Drink your bottle soon as in over the next two weeks.
3. Personal preference: Do you actually like the smell and taste of an older wine? The answer is probably not unless you’ve not had more than a few experiences with aged wine. If that’s the case, drink up!

 
What phone app do you recommend that has aging recommendations for wines?
I recommend an app called BottleCru (www.bottlecru.com) that was developed Ken Schroeder, a friend and colleague. BottleCru uses avatars to help consumers understand the different styles of classic grapes and wines. It also includes recommendations on when to enjoy wines as well as a remarkably robust database for food and wine pairing and cheese and wine pairing.

I’ve had X bottle of wine for some time now at home. When should I drink it?
This is perhaps the commonly asked question about aging wine—and the answer could be the only thing you ever need to remember. If you are holding a bottle of wine in hand and asking yourself if you should open it, the answer 999 out of 1,000 times is a resounding YES. For god’s sake, open the bottle and drink it. The very rare exception—and I do mean rare—is if the wine is a very expensive and/or rare bottle of something that is the only bottle of whatever it is you own. Say it’s a bottle of Petrus, Hill of Grace, or La Tâche. Then you might pause for a moment and consider whether the occasion, the company, and the meal call for such a spectacular bottle. Only then should you hesitate. Otherwise, open and enjoy the wine. After all, that’s what it’s for. 
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*A final thought: if you’ve been wondering about the title of this post, wonder no more. I offer the following photograph of the late Jimi Hendrix and Buddy Miles taken in San Francisco in 1967. If you’ve never heard the live version of Miles’ song “Them Changes” with Hendrix playing lead recorded at the Fillmore in 1970, you simply must (www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHU5Le-2d6k). And now you know. Cheers!

Last fall I had a rare half-day free in New York after a meeting. That night I shared dinner with good friends Beth Cotenoff, of Teuwen Communications, and Ron Merlino. Ron has owned a classical artists management company called MusicVine for over 20 years. His clients include top orchestral conductors and classical pianists. In his not-so-copious free time Ron also has an ongoing academic research project on the role wine played in the lives of the great composers. Previously, I posted an interview I did with him in July of 2018. 
​
During conversation Ron told us about a presentation he would be giving the following month to a group celebrating the 100th anniversary of the San Francisco Girls Chorus. The title of his talk was “Prohibition, Suffrage, and Early Women Winemakers in 19th and 20th Century America.” The information Ron shared with us based on his research was amazing. Other than Lilly Langtry and Isabelle Simi, I had never heard of any of the women, all of whom owned and ran wineries. Perhaps there’s a good reason why. These women were not especially supportive of the Suffrage movement. That may seem shocking, but it’s important to know that in the latter half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Suffrage and Prohibition movements were linked. It’s a complex story and some background is needed to understand how these two very different movements came to be unified.

​The following is taken from a transcript of Ron’s presentation. I have edited it for length but the content is taken entirely from his narrative which unified the work of many fine historians and their research.
 
“Prohibition, Suffrage, and Early Women Winemakers in the 19th and 20th Century America.”
 
By Ron Merlino
 
The last few years have celebrated the hundredth anniversaries of the 18th and 19th amendments enacting Prohibition and granting women the right to vote, respectively. What few today realize is that both movements were indelibly linked - each could not have occurred without the other. Their story is a truly American one - a tale of immigration, cultural diversity, civil liberty, human rights, and religion. They are also a reminder to us all of racism, isolationism, xenophobia, and corruption. To fully understand this, it is necessary to view the key events that preceded the passing of these two amendments.
 
1848-58: The gold rush brings thousands to California, including immigrants from every corner of the globe and scores of Americans from the East Coast and the Midwest.
 
1865: With the end of the Civil War, the 13th Amendment is ratified abolishing slavery.
 
1868: The 14th amendment passes, granting freed slaves and their descendants citizenship rights.
 
1869: The Transcontinental Railroad is finally completed - a huge achievement that required the labor of freed slaves. Massive speculation and investment in the West ensued and many businesses overextended their resources and capacity.
 
1870: The 15th amendment grants black men the right to vote.
 
1873: On May 9th the Vienna Stock Market crashes. By Sept 20th the New York Stock Exchange had closed its doors for 20 full days. By Thanksgiving, three quarters of the newly formed railroad companies in the US cease operations due to over-speculation in the West. The first global world financial crisis ensues - the Panic of 1873.
 
1873: On Dec 23rd, the first Women’s Christian Temperance Conference was held in Hillsboro, Ohio. It was fueled by frustration and pent up anger over the rising tide of alcoholism and the violence that alcohol encouraged men to perpetuate against women. But it was also the inevitable end result of women having watched the rights of blacks and freed slaves find a legal voice before their own, movements they had supported but which still left them disenfranchised.
 
It is not by chance that this first Conference took place only miles away from the well-known wine country of the Ohio River Valley - the Cincinnati vineyards that had defined the face of American wine culture to that point in history.
 
The Temperance women opposed the Northern Republican party’s dominance of national politics. They published pamphlets claiming women’s moral superiority to men, espousing that a man’s only hope to rise to a woman’s higher moral ground would be to reject alcohol, tobacco, and lust.
 
Southern Democrats watched this Temperance movement carefully, cleverly adopting the platform of National Prohibition. Not only could banning alcohol allow them to enforce their continued oppressive and isolationist policies, but it could now help them regain control of the national government. What began as a worthy idea among responsible women who actually believed that wine was to be encouraged over hard liquor--NOT that all alcohol should be banned-- morphed into a frenzy of extremist Temperance crusades, a social wave that conservative-minded businessmen and politicians co-opted for their own motives.
 
1909: The 16th amendment establishes a Federal Income Tax. Overnight the alcohol tax as an important source of federal government revenue vanished and the way was paved for national Prohibition to become a reality.
 
Naturally, many men and women resisted this push to take away their freedom to drink. In those long, tortuous final ten years leading up to 1919, the savviest politicians understood that Prohibition as an amendment could not pass without the grassroots community efforts of the suffragettes who raised their voices to pressure hesitant and undecided women. In the end, it worked. A woman’s right to vote would be publicly tied to the passing of Prohibition.
 
But success had a dear and lasting price, for not all women were lockstep in unison by any means. Many women wanted the freedom to serve and to be served alcohol, and a small courageous group of them actually owned wineries and made wine. California emerged as a hot bed of anti-suffrage sentiment among women as a result of its economic significance in the wine trade. Famous California wine women like Lilly Langtry actually stepped away from her initial support of the suffrage movement. Other notable figures such as Isabelle Simi actively circumvented the law and blatantly defied the Prohibition regulations. But the true pioneers were left forgotten, perhaps because of their uncomfortable place in the otherwise moral triumph of Suffragism in America. This is their story. 

Napa: Hannah Weinberger and Josephine Tychson
 
Hannah Weinberger

John Weinberger was a businessman and winemaker from Germany who had emigrated to America in 1848. He first learned the wine trade working at Nicholas Longworth Vineyards in Cincinnati. John met his wife Hannah in Ohio, and the two moved west during the Gold Rush Years. Once in California, John quickly excelled as a wine producer in St. Helena. He also became president of the local Bank of St. Helena and was known as a close friend to two other German wine pioneers in Napa; Jacob Beringer of Beringer Vineyards and Jacob Schram of Schramsberg.

At the time, the JC Weinberger wines were considered equals to those of Beringer and Schram. The Weinberger brand and story are only forgotten today due to John’s untimely death in 1882, when he was gunned down in broad daylight on the platform of the St. Helena railroad station by a disgruntled employee.
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Upon John’s death, Hannah took over running the winery. She also assumed John’s post as head of the bank. Hannah quickly established a national presence for her wines and successfully marketed them in major cities including St Louis, Cincinnati, and New York.
 
In 1889 her Cabernet Sauvignon was entered in the Paris World Expo. It won a silver medal, not only making her the first woman winemaker from the United States to be given an award on the world stage, but the first California wine to ever be awarded an international medal.
 
Hannah’s winery remained prosperous until 1920 when it was forced to close due to Prohibition. She passed away at the age of 91. Today her vineyards are part of the William Cole winery holdings across Highway 29 from the Markham winery.
 
Josephine Tychson
 
If you run a Google search for “pioneer California women winemakers,” Josephine Tychson’s name will probably come up first. After losing her husband to suicide during his battle with tuberculosis, Josephine undertook an extensive rebuilding of his winery and oversaw the very first harvest. She kept the business alive until 1895 when she decided to sell it to the then burgeoning giant Italian Swiss Colony. The winery, located near St. Helena, still stands today as part of Freemark Abbey Wines. The vines surrounding her original home are used to produce the Tychson Vineyard Cabernets made by Ann Colgin.

The Sonoma Trio: Eliza Shaw Hood, Ellen Stuart, and Kate Warfield
 
Aside from Hannah Weinberger and Josephine Tychson, the earliest pioneers of women in California wine were not from Napa—they were from Sonoma. Though they have been largely forgotten, their legacy is remarkable. Eliza Shaw Hood, Ellen Stuart, and Kate Warfield all hailed from Glen Ellen. All three lived and worked near one another, and all three took over the wineries owned by their respective husbands in the late 1870s and early 1880s.
 
Eliza Shaw Hood
 
Eliza Shaw Hood and her husband William Hood settled the area of Glen Ellen in 1848. Previously, William Hood had come from Scotland and was a carpenter by trade. He made a fortune during the urban boom of San Francisco following the Gold Rush. In 1851 he purchased a 30 square mile tract of land called Rancho Guiluco on which stood a mountain that is named after him (Mt. Hood).
 
Unfortunately, William was committed to a local asylum in later years, and Eliza took over the winery in 1877. That date makes her the first and earliest known woman to run a winery in California. At the time the estate vineyard was planted entirely to the Mission grape. Eliza hired Auguste Drioton, a French viticultural expert who had previously published a book on the handling of phylloxera. With his help, she grafted the vineyard over to a wide variety of vitis vinifera.
 
The Eliza Hood Cabernets, Rieslings, and Semillons became widely acclaimed and her brandy was successful as well. Over time, production increased to over 100,000 gallons of wine and 5,000 gallons of brandy. In 1897 she too sold her winery to the Italian Swiss Colony and then moved to San Francisco where she lived until 1918.
 
Ellen Stuart
 
Ellen Stuart also married a Scotsman, Charles Stuart. Like the Hoods, they came to Sonoma at the peak of the Gold Rush in 1849. Charles bought a 1000-acre land grant called Agua Caliente that ran parallel to today’s Highway 12. He planted vines and named the estate Glen Ellen to honor of his wife and Scottish heritage. The Stuart estate was one of the first vineyards in the region. By 1863 there were 40 acres planted, and in 1869 a stone winery house was built that still stands. In 1880 Charles died suddenly and Ellen found herself supervising the crush of the now 90-acre vineyard. Over the next decade she made and marketed the estate’s wines until phylloxera devastated the vineyard in 1890. Given the time frame, one can make the argument that Ellen Stuart was the earliest known woman winemaker in California.
 
Kate Warfield
 
Kate Warfield was known as the “lady vineyardist” in her time. Her husband Jacob Warfield came to California from Ohio in 1849 and built a successful trading business in Gold Country. When Charles and Ellen Stuart sold him part of their estate in 1862, Jacob named the winery Ten Oaks and planted 16 acres of Mission vines. After his after his death in 1878, Kate took over the vineyard and winery operation. She hired a French winemaker and grafted the Mission vines over to other European varieties.
 
In 1883 Kate entered her brandy in the California State Fair contest and won top prize. However, the result was contested by an all-male judging panel who believed it impossible that a woman could make a better brandy than a man. A second testing was held on the spot and yielded identical results.
 
In 1886 Warfield was awarded top marks for her Cabernet, Syrah, and Sauvignon Blanc at the San Francisco Mechanics Fair Tasting, the preeminent California wine event at the time. She also became widely known as an advocate for phylloxera-resistant root stocks and was considered the most talented vine grower in California in her time.
 
The success of these three women is remarkable. However, there's more to their story. Together, they brought a legal petition to the Sonoma County Superior Court in the early 1880s. In the petition they argued for the right to operate their wineries as “sole traders,” a legal designation necessary to run a commercial business in the state of California. At the time, the sole trader status was rarely granted to women. However, by sheer force of will, courage, and intellect they won their case and gained the right to operate as female proprietors of their estates.
 
While it’s far from a thrilling plot line, this singular achievement set the stage for women in the industry who would follow in the coming decades. The Sonoma Trio were not only true pioneers for women’s rights, they also paved the way for women winemakers in America.

Frona Eunice Wait
 
Finally, the brilliant journalism of Frona Eunice Wait, without whom most of the written history described above would have been lost. Wait was born in the gold rush territory in 1859. Early on she displayed a gift for journalism, landing her first job with the Santa Rosa Republican. Her talents were soon noticed by William Randolph Hearst and in 1887, at age 28, she was hired by Hearst as the first female staff journalist for the San Francisco Chronicle and Examiner newspapers.
 
Two years later Wait published the first of two seminal books on the California wine industry: Wines and Vines of California: A Treatise on the Ethics of Wine Drinking (1889). It was immediately hailed as a definitive contemporary work on California wine. In writing the book, she interviewed every winemaker she could find, visiting vineyards, cataloguing grape varieties, explaining production methods, and listing the unique accomplishments of each and every vintner and producer. It’s only because of her work that we have such a vivid and accurate picture of what wine in California was actually like at the time. Wait went on to publish a second book on California wine, as well as a book on Spanish wine and several other history works. In 1897 she published a novel, Yermah the Dorado, which many consider to be the very first science fiction work ever written.
 
With the mention of “ethics of drinking” in the title of her first book, it comes as no surprise that Ms. Wait was an avid anti-Suffragist and anti-Prohibitionist. She actively campaigned against both initiatives. Her pamphlet, 80 Percent of the Women in California Do Not Want the Vote, was printed in 1915 at the height of the resistance efforts to both amendments. The work was immensely popular and reprinted and distributed on the East Coast and across the South.
 
Wait’s writing is full of life and teems with character even when focused on mundane things such as soil and vines. She is truly one of the great—and controversial--figures of California wine in the early 20th century. Today Wait reminds us that there are many hidden, yet extraordinary women in the history of American wine in the challenging and profoundly important years leading up to Prohibition and Women’s Right to Vote. And that the story is never black and white but rather full of shades and nuances. Most importantly, the story of women in California wine history deserves a great deal more attention, advocacy, and voice--even if it doesn’t fit comfortably into the accepted narrative as we have come to know it. But it’s truly an American story; one of courage and belief in one’s convictions, one of innovation and creative spirit, and one of conflict and challenge. Thanks to Wait’s work we have the opportunity to raise our glasses to these unheralded women and know that their legacies will live on. 

I was saddened to hear of the recent passing of Michael Broadbent at the age of 92. He was a true icon of the global industry, and his contributions to wine over the last 60-plus years cannot be measured.

Broadbent passed the Master of Wine examination in 1960 in London. He moved to Christie’s auction house in 1966 and launched their first fine wine auctions. He remained with Christie’s until 1992 and was a senior consultant with them until 2009. During his time at Christie’s, no one tasted more fine and rare wine, or wrote so eloquently about it than Broadbent. His books about tasting and rare wine have long been industry benchmarks. I can’t recall the number of times when a need for information or a tasting note for an older vintage of Madeira or Port would have me reaching for Vintage Wine or The New Great Vintage Wine Book.

Michael touched the lives of countless in the industry. No doubt many have stories about him and I look forward to reading them in the days and weeks to come. I had one unforgettable encounter with Mr. Broadbent. It went something like this.

In the fall of 2002, I was invited by good friend Joe Bilman to be part of a dinner honoring Broadbent and his son Bartholomew. Bilman owns Subterraneum, a wine storage facility in Oakland. I’d worked with Joe in the restaurant business in San Francisco previously and had been one of his first customers, storing my cellar with him early on. In time, many collectors in the Bay Area did likewise and Subterraneum flourished.

At this particular time, Michael Broadbent had just released his book, Vintage Wine, and was doing a tour of sorts through the U.S. Joe knew Bartholomew and was able to convince him to have Michael do a book signing at Subterraneum followed by a catered dinner for the Broadbents and a small group of collectors who were wine storage clients. I should also note that I knew Bartholomew. In my previous role as one of the buyers at Virtual Vineyards/the original wine.com, I got to know Bartholomew well and bought copious quantities of Port, Madeira, and Portuguese table wines from him.

Joe extended an invitation to the dinner with the caveat that I had to contribute a bottle worthy of the occasion; no easy task given the cellars of the other guests. In a pinch, I called Brent Wiest of Cellars International. Brent generously offered two half bottles of the 1983 JJ Prüm Wehlener Sonnenuhr Eiswein for a player to be named later. The bottles would be my contribution to the meal.

Meeting Michael Broadbent that afternoon was a moment. He couldn’t have been more gracious. He was appreciative of the fact that I owned all his books and had already purchased the new book, which he quickly signed for me. For the moment all was well. It couldn’t have better. And then in an instant, things changed.

While I was chatting with Michael, one of the collectors who would be joining for dinner ambled up and placed a bottle in my hands. He said something like, “Joe said you’d take care of this for me,” and then wandered off. Broadbent looked down at the bottle and exclaimed, “Oh, the 1876 Gruaud-Larose! How marvelous!” My head snapped down and sure enough, there in my hands was a bottle of 1876 Chateau Gruaud-Larose with the label in remarkably good shape. Broadbent immediately started talking about the 1876 vintage on the left bank in detail.
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During an appropriate lull in the conversation, I excused myself and went to find Joe. I showed him the bottle and he said to go ahead and decant it. Mind you, the bottle had just been taken directly out of a storage locker and could not be stood upright lest the sediment be disturbed and the wine immediately rendered undrinkable. I then asked Joe what kind of equipment he had on site. A Screwpull? Ah-so? Decanting cradle or basket? He answered negative to all the above. But he did have a decanter and a candle. The only thing I had was a $10 waiter’s friend corkscrew with a black plastic handle. If not familiar, a waiter’s friend is the kind of corkscrew used by untold thousands of servers, bartenders, and sommeliers, the world over. It is the easiest to use, most effective corkscrew there is. That said, it is the very LAST corkscrew on planet earth one would use to open a bottle over a century old. 

​I scoured the kitchen looking for anything that would help stabilize the bottle horizontally at the proper angle so I could gently remove the cork and then decant the wine without disturbing the sediment or creating an international incident. Absolutely nothing turned up. In the end, I grabbed a pile of folded cloth napkins from the catering company and found a quiet place off to the side and out of sight. I then fashioned a nest of sorts for the bottle and carefully placed it snugly like a newborn. Mind you, Michael had followed me and was watching with great curiosity--and probably wondering what kind of maroon would use a pile of napkins to secure such an old bottle for decanting. I didn’t have time to worry about appearances.

As I carefully positioned bottle, Michael told me that he had tasted the 1876 several times previously. Then, with his photographic memory, he began to tell me about each time he had tasted the wine; the place, the occasion, and how each bottle had showed. I, on the other hand, was trying to perform micro-surgery with a can opener. I lit the candle and set it out of the way. I then took the entire lead capsule off the neck of the bottle so I could see exactly what was happening with the cork when I started to remove it. Next, I wiped the top of the bottle clean making sure it was free of any mold. Taking a deep breath, I inserted the auger of the corkscrew into the top of the cork. I slowly twisted/inserted the auger of the corkscrew and then began the delicate task of removing the cork. All the while Michael continued with his detailed account of each of the bottles of the 1876. Truth be told, I tuned him out and was completely focused on the cork as it started to come out in minuscule increments. After an eternity the cork was completely out and miraculously in one piece. To be honest, I got lucky as the bottle must have been recorked at the chateau at some point during the 1950’s or ‘60’s.

​From there it was all routine. I removed the cork from the auger of the corkscrew and put it aside on one of the napkins. I wiped out the inside of the neck and the top of the bottle thoroughly. Then I slowly and gently decanted the wine into the decanter, viewing the candle through the shoulder of the bottle to be mindful of any sediment (surprisingly, in the end there was very little sediment at all). I placed the bottle and decanter down and finally looked up. Broadbent was smiling. He put his hand on my shoulder and said, “young man, that’s one of the best jobs of decanting I have ever seen.” I simply nodded and mumbled my thanks, somehow resisting the urge to come completely unglued. I then found the bottle’s owner and handed him the bottle and decanter.

The dinner, a multi-course affair, was a great success. James Grandison, a friend of Joe’s, did the cooking and it was superb. I was drafted to do all the wine service and was more than happy to oblige. The lineup of wines from the various collectors’ cellars was the stuff of legend: a magnum of 1982 Krug vintage to start, 1947 Chateau Haut-Brion Blanc, the infamous bottle of 1876 Chateau Gruaud-Larose, 1996 Chateau Palmer, 1961 Chateau Cheval Blanc, 1978 Henri Jayer Vosne Romanée Les Brulées, the 1983 JJ Prüm Eiswein, and a bottle of 1900 d’Oliveiras Moscatel to finish the evening off.

Throughout the meal, Michael was asked to provide commentary about each of the wines served and he did so brilliantly and graciously. Toward the end of the meal I served the Prüm Eiswein. After pouring, Broadbent took a sip, looked up at me, and said, “perfection.” And it was.

The following year Michael wrote about the dinner in his column in the May 2003 issue of Decanter. He described the evening and the wines in detail. Here are his thoughts on the two wines of note:

“The first of the reds was Gruaud-Larose of a scarcely ever seen pre-phylloxera vintage, 1876. It had been recorked at the chateau and almost certainly emanated from Cordier’s sale at Christie’s in 1976. Palish, with orange-tinged maturity; its fragrance was discernible despite the initial whiff of banana skins and final relapse; tart and creaking yet remarkably good for its age and vintage. One has to make allowances.”

“Happily, along came a JJ Prüm Wehlener Sonnenuhr Eiswein of a favourite Mosel vintage of mine, 1983. Orange amber-gold; a scent of apricots and refreshing whiff of tangerine; sweet of course, caramelly, raisiny, chocolatey. What Parker might call ‘decadent’ and what I shall merely regard as unashamedly appealing. Perhaps we mean the same thing.”

Michael closed the column with a wonderful remark:

“So this is how half a dozen collectors show and share their wines – with friends, and generous to a fault.”
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I think back to that night at Subterraneum, the dinner, and the brief time I was able to share with Michael. It is truly one of the highlights of my career—something I treasure. So Michael, here’s to you. Thank you for everything you did for our industry. It is beyond measure. You will be greatly missed. Cheers and Godspeed! 

Everyone, hope you’re keeping safe and healthy during this very strange time. This short missive is about an approach to learning tasting for the beginner student. In the past I’ve said that the process of becoming a professional taster (for exam purposes or not) is a journey with an untold many steps. And that the journey requires a duration of time and lots of tasting practice with wine in hand--or not.
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I’ve also emphasized the fact that there are no short cuts. There is no hacking becoming a proficient taster just as there is no hacking being an opera singer or a downhill skier. All require a lengthy learning curve, coaching, and again lots of practice.

That’s the bad news—there are no short cuts. The good news is that this is wine we’re dealing with and not widgets. Wine, as in one of the greatest gifts from nature mankind has ever stumbled upon. That said, when you first start out on a wine exam track the tasting aspect can seem overwhelming—regardless of curriculum.

It brings to mind the old proverb about eating an elephant one bite at time. With tasting, this ancient quip applies in the form of incremental learning and practice. Keeping the elephant in mind, here are some tips about tasting and wine in general.

Memorize the grid: regardless of whether you’re using the MS or the WSET tasting grid, the very first thing you must do is memorize it. Break the grid down into groups of three terms and memorize their definitions. Be able to explain the terms and the grid to someone who’s not in the wine industry. Famed physicist Richard Feynman once said that if you can’t explain something to an eight-year-old, you really don’t know it. Nothing could be truer.
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Learn common wine terms: find a good glossary of wine terms and begin to chip away at it daily, again in three-to-five-word increments. In the beginning focus on terms that have to do with tasting. Again, be able to explain the terms to someone who’s not in the industry. Otherwise, you don’t really know them and you certainly won’t remember what they mean.

Improving memory for basic aromatics and flavors: there are about 25-30 aromas and flavors commonly found in a majority of all wines. Things as basic as lemon, green apple, and vanilla. I call this list the Basic Set. Work on your memory for these elements for a few minutes every day—without wine. Tasting will become much easier if you do (see the last post for more info on the Basic Set).

Structure practice: practice tasting with a focus on structure--the levels of acidity, alcohol, phenolic bitterness, and tannin in any given wine. In particular, practice isolating the elements on your palate. Separate what each tastes and feels like, as in the bitter taste and astringent feeling of tannin.

Connect the dots: when you taste for structure, start to connect the fruit character of the wine and the structure to the kind of climate where the grapes were grown. For example, a wine with higher alcohol and less natural acidity that shows really ripe fruit is almost always from a warmer growing region. Likewise, a wine with restrained alcohol and higher natural acidity with tarter fruit is usually from a cooler growing region.

Write your own varietal descriptions: there are many list of grape variety descriptions available, but you need to create a personal list with your own markers for each grape and what makes them easy to identify—for you. Start with the easy grapes/descriptions and write one or two a day—or any time you taste an appropriate wine. Read them regularly—out loud if you can. It’s yet another way to use multiple-sense memory to identify a grape and wine when the time comes.

Get a Coravin: the one wine accessory you must own for tasting practice is a Coravin. If not familiar, a Coravin is a device with a surgical needle attached to a small tank of argon. The needle can be placed all the way through a cork allowing wine to be taken from the bottle. The volume of wine is then replaced by the argon which acts as a preservative. Most importantly, the cork remains intact and the remaining wine preserved. While the up-front cost of a Coravin is far from inexpensive, it will save untold thousands of dollars in the long run by allowing you to purchase best examples of classic wines and taste them multiple times.

Tasting practice in pairs: taste wines in pairs using the Coravin. Always compare a more challenging wine with a wine that’s easy to recognize. For example, a dry Chenin Blanc from the Loire vs. New Zealand Sauvignon Blanc. Focus on impact compounds--the most important aromas and flavors--and the differences in structure. These two aspects are the most important in varietal recognition.

One bite at a time! Keep a journal of the work you’re doing each day and the wines you’re tasting/working with. Be patient with your progress. You’ll be surprised at how much progress you can achieve even in a short period of time with consistent work. Remind yourself often that tasting is unlike anything you’ve ever learned. That’s simply because practically everything else you’ve ever learned just involved visual memory. Learning how to taste requires the use of multiple senses in rapid sequence. It’s not exactly easy—but more than worth the effort and certainly the journey.  

Cheers!

“Darling, we’ll always have apple…”

Recently, I was in Napa teaching my intro to tasting workshop. The students in the class were a mix of industry people and a few consumers who just happened to be in the valley for the day and wanted to take a wine tasting class. And this was their first-ever wine class (!). Even though it’s advertised as an introductory class, the water gets deep pretty quickly. I cover a lot of information in detail—all in the first 90 minutes. Beginners often struggle because there are so many new terms and concepts presented in rapid succession. Add to that the fact that their smell/taste memory probably isn’t dialed in, much less in shape. Needless to say, I make sure to answer all questions and that everyone is on the same page.

One concept covered early on in the class that often baffles students is a simple one: fruit; as in, smelling and tasting fruit in wine. When I start going on about how the Chablis we’re tasting smells like green apple and lemon, an unsettled silence usually follows. It’s like there’s been a momentary disturbance in the force.

At this point I have to stop for the first of many mini-reality checks of the day. In this case, that assessing fruit in wine is the single most subjective aspect there is to tasting. There really is nothing else close. I assure the students that the fruit they recognize in a glass of wine is completely based on their life memories of said fruit. Thus, what they find in a glass of wine for fruit will probably be different from everyone else. Which means that in any given wine, my lemon could be your lime and my grapefruit might be your kumquat.

If calling fruit in any wine is so subjective, what is important about fruit in wine? I explain to the students that the categories of fruit can and should be linked to other factors that help make up the quality and character of the wine—and this should be the focus. More on that in a moment. For now, here is a breakdown of the categories of fruit that can be found in white and red wines.

White Wines

With white wines, specific groups or families of fruit are named.

Apple and pear: a broad category that can be found in practically every white wine. However, more specificity is needed here in the form of calling green vs. red apple, etc.

Citrus fruit: broken down further into tart citrus (lemon, lime, grapefruit, etc.) and sweet citrus (orange, tangerine, Mandarin)

Tropical fruit: pineapple, mango, passion fruit, papaya, etc.
Stone fruit: peach, apricot, nectarine

Melon: green, white, orange

Red Wines

With Red wines, colors or qualities of fruit are used. However, once a color/quality is identified, the taste or student needs to be more specific in describing the fruit.

Red fruit: fruits that are sour (think cool climate and less ripening) including red cherry, red raspberry, red currant, strawberry, cranberry, plum, pomegranate, and rhubarb

Black fruit: fruits that are riper (think warmer climate and more ripening) including black cherry, blackberry, black raspberry, black currant, black plum

Blue fruit: blueberry and boysenberry (could include other more esoteric berries such as olallieberry and schnozzberry. Just kidding).
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Dried fruit: raisin, prune, sultana, fig, date

Fruit Quality or Character

Once specific kinds of fruit have been identified, the character or quality of the fruit needs to be assessed. Note that I use the two terms interchangeably here. You should too. The quality or character of fruit in a wine is very important. In fact, I think it’s one of the three most vital aspects of tasting. For the record, the other two important aspects are impact compounds and accurately assessing structure (I cover both in past posts).
Here’s a list of descriptors regarding fruit quality/character that should be self-explanatory. Note that there are more descriptors than listed here.

• Fresh
• Tart
• Sweet
• Ripe
• Candied
• Dried
• Jammy
• Cooked
• Stewed

Some examples: in a young Riesling from the Mosel Valley in Germany, one might find green apple, mango, white peach, and lime, and describe them as fresh and tart in quality. The fruit and qualities are connected to the grape itself as well as the cool Continental climate found in the Mosel Valley.

Likewise, the fruit in a Zinfandel from Paso Robles might be described as ripe, jammy, cooked, and tart. The range of different fruit qualities here are linked to Zinfandel and its tendency to ripen unevenly, the very warm climate of Paso Robles, and the possibility of the fruit having been harvested late in the season when it is beyond fully ripe. 

Fruit Quality/Character and Cause and Effect

The take away with fruit quality? It should always be linked to the climate of the growing region, timing of the harvest, and more. All of which lead directly to the concept of Cause and Effect. The concept of Cause and Effect poses the question why--why a wine looks, smells, and tastes the way it does. The answers have to do with climate once again, the timing of the harvest, the quality of vintage, and a myriad of decisions made in the vineyard and the winery. Consider the following fruit categories commonly found in red wines and how they equate to cause and effect:

A red fruit dominant wine like a Pinot Noir: thinner-skinner grape, cooler climate, less ripening, lower alcohol, and higher natural acidity.

Black fruit dominant wine like a Cabernet Sauvignon: thicker-skinned grape, warmer climate, riper fruit, higher alcohol, and lower natural acidity with possible acidulation.
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Dried fruit dominant wine like a Grand Reserva Rioja: oxidation due to the actual age of the wine, and extended time in barrel and bottle as required by law.

Using the Basic Set to Improve Smell Memory

How can one improve memory of fruit and quality of fruit? In the past I’ve written about a concept I call “The Basic Set”: the smaller subset of aromas and flavors that appear in over 80% of all wines. Here is a list of fruit in the Basic Set:

• Green apple
• Red and/or Golden Delicious Apple
• Pear
• Lemon
• Lime
• Orange
• Pineapple
• Banana
• Peach
• Apricot
• Black cherry
• Blackberry
• Sour red cherry
• Red raspberry
• Cranberry
• Raisin
• Prune

The premise of the Basic Set is this: if you work on your memory of all the above on a regular basis—without wine--your ability to recognize any of these aromas/flavors in a glass of wine will improve exponentially. But how? Odds are as you read through the list you brought up internal images in your mind’s eye of your own life memories as a way to recall each aroma. I’ve written many times previously that olfactory and taste memory are intensely visual. We shouldn’t be surprised at the image/olfactory connection. After all, we learn practically everything else visually.

Exercise

To work on your memory of the components of the Basic Set we’ll use the natural image/smell memory connection and submodalities--the structure of your internal images. To do so we’ll use your memories of the following aromas/flavors:

• Green apple
• Lemon
• Black Cherry
• Pineapple
• Raisin

With each of the above take the internal image of your memory and intensify it by do the following:

a. Make the image larger

b. Make the image closer

c. Make the colors in the image brighter

Practice! A bit of repetition can dramatically improve your memory of the basic aromas/flavors and as well as enable you to recognize even trace amounts in a glass of wine. Go through the list above at least once a day—it will take less than five minutes but the benefits will be dramatic. And the next time you pick up a glass of wine the fruit will be front and center and easy to describe.
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Cheers!

Using Internal Visual to Calibrate the Structure in Wine

A belated Happy New Year to everyone! I hope the holidays provided some much-deserved quality time off with family, friends, and most of all solo down time. This is the time of year when people tend to make resolutions about various things including health, saving, being on time, etc. However, I don’t make New Year’s resolutions. In the past I’ve found that any resolutions I make are quickly forgotten after, causing needless pseudo-guilt and moments of almost sort-of pretending to feel bad.
 
Instead, I like the idea of “course corrections,” or minor tweaks in habit that over time lead to considerable changes. Course corrections can be very effective. How effective? Would we even know about the Titanic if the ship’s direction had been changed a mere three-degrees a few hours before its fatal meeting with an iceberg? Doubtful.

But my New Year’s post is not about resolutions or course corrections. I will leave that to you. This post is about two completely disparate ideas that will shortly collide in meaningful fashion.
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The first idea: according to behavioral scientists, most of the human race, as in over 93%, is visual-dominant internally. That means most of us think in pictures and movies.

The second idea: in wine, structure matters. In this context structure means the levels of acidity, alcohol, phenolic bitterness, and tannin in a given wine.

Structure is important; it’s the essence of any wine--its very bones and sinews. Structure is how a wine physically presents itself to us when we taste it. Without it there are no dots to connect when we taste. And if called for, any sense of logic needed to make a meaningful conclusion is non-existent.

No surprise that a professional taster has to be able to quickly, accurately, and consistently judge structural levels in any wine. But this is no easy task. In fact, it’s a challenge for most people. Why? Because it’s difficult to put a quantity on the degree of a physical sensation (as in sour or bitter), much less to be sensitive to it being present in the first place. Given all that, how can one become proficient at assessing the degree of said structural elements?

Back to the premise of this post and the delightful (and useful!) confluence of the two ideas above. The sum total is this: we represent a great deal of the internal tasting experience visually. Smell and taste memories are indeed images and movies that we experience and catalogue over a lifetime. However, precious few people are aware of the internal visual aspect of wine. This simply because it requires one to simultaneously be aware of the experience and the process. A guide of sorts is required to help one become aware of what they already do naturally. Had I not worked with such a guide--a behavioral scientist--ten years ago, I wouldn’t be writing about any of this.

Structure is no exception to the internal visual rule. In fact, it’s the key to being consistent with it. To point, in conversations and interviews with colleagues and students over the last decade, I’ve found that with very few exceptions, all of us use internal scales or dials to visually calibrate structure levels. 

Personally, I use an internal scale that resembles an old slide rule that’s positioned several feet out in front of me at eye level. Yes, I know that you’re thinking. That’s more than a bit strange. But stay with me. The scale is about four feet long with marks for low, medium-minus, medium, medium-plus, and high that correspond to similar marks on the deductive tasting scale. A red button of sorts is positioned on medium in the middle of the scale. When I taste for structure (be it acidity, alcohol, or whatever), I watch the button as it moves until it stops at the appropriate mark on the scale that matches what I’m tasting/sensing in the wine.
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For example, if I’m tasting a wine to gauge the level of acidity, I watch the button on the scale move to the appropriate mark. Then I internally point to the mark and say (internally) “it’s medium-plus acid,” or whatever the level happens to be. If I’m not quite sure about the accuracy, I can bring the scale in closer to me and more, smaller increments on the scale appear as it gets closer.    

Do you use internal visual to assess structural levels when you taste? You may already do so but not be aware of it. Regardless, if you don’t, you should. Using internal visual calibration takes the mystery out of assessing structure and makes it a relatively easy and consistent task. Installing an internal scale or dial in your internal field is also easier than you may think. Try the following: first, take a look at the scale below used for assessing structural elements taken from the deductive tasting grid:

Low – Medium-Minus – Medium – Medium-Plus – High

Now place a red dot or button squarely in the middle of “Medium.” Next, slide the button sideways to the left to “low.” Reset the button on “medium.” Now slide the button to the right on “high.” And reset the button on “medium” again. Got it?

Now it’s time to create your own personal scale, dial, or whatever design works best for you. It goes without saying that if the above scale/design doesn’t work for you, create something else; a dial or different kind of scale. Remember, it’s your internal IMAX theater. You can design whatever works best for you. Once you’ve settled on a design, put markers on it for all the levels: low, medium-minus, medium, medium-plus, and high. Then put a brightly-colored button of sorts on the medium marker that can move over all the levels as needed.

Calibrating Your Scale with Extremes

Now that you have your internal scale, taste wines in pairs for extremes: lower vs. higher alcohol, acid, tannin, and phenolic bitterness. As you taste the wines, match your internal scale to the level of acidity (or other structural element) that you’re tasting. You can also confirm structure levels by using internal auditory. For example, when tasting for alcohol with your scale, you can also say (inside voice, please), the alcohol is high or whatever the appropriate level. Here are some suggested pairs of wines to taste that will show extremes in structure.

• Acidity: Alsace Gewurztraminer vs. Clare Valley Riesling
• Alcohol: Mosel Kabinet Riesling vs. Central Coast Viognier
• Phenolic bitterness: Chablis AC vs. Alsace Gewurztraminer
• Tannin: Beaujolais Villages vs. Barolo/Barbaresco

Once you’ve calibrated the extremes for structure you can quickly branch out to find “Medium” and then “Medium-Minus” and “Medium-Plus.” With some practice, tasting for structure using internal visual will become easy and something you do automatically. And that’s a very good thing.

Other Scale Applications

Are there other possible uses for an internal scale or dial? That’s a good question. Now I’m going to go completely Marin County on you. If we can use an internal visual scale—as in the one for structure we’ve invented above--how else could a scale/dial be useful? What else could we use it for? For me, the first thing that comes to mind is an internal sense of time or timing. Or to represent the intensity of a feeling—be it emotional or physical. There’s a lot to explore here but start with the basics of tasting and structure. You’ll be glad you did.
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Salud!